f 

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THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 

OF  CALIFORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES 


y^_^~'-''- tT."  /  ^-L.M^r'  y^ii'VTvr*' vT  5^ 


WAX-l'Al.M    OF     hOKNEO. 


THE 


ISLAND   WORLD 


OF   THE 


PACIFIC  OCEAN 


BY 

CHARLES   MARION   TYLER 


SAN    FRANCISCO,  CAL. 
HOWARD  &  PARISER,  Publishers 

429  MONTGOMERY   STREET 
1885  • 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1885,  by 
CHARLES  MARION  TYLER 
in  the  office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress  at  Washington,  D.  C- 


Sterpotyped  by 

r.MNTKK   A    CO.,    S.  F. 


Oil  a/ 


PREFACE 


Some  years  ago,  it  was  the  author's  privilege 
to  become  interested,  in  a  small  way,  in  trade  with 
the  South  Sea.  Although  not  of  great  personal  profit 
or  benefit  at  the  time,  so  many  and  varied  were  the 
commercial  interests  presented,  that  a  journal  was 
kept,  of  the  ups  and  downs  of  trade  and  adventures 
among  the  Pacific  Islands.  These  notes  by  the  way- 
side, are  merged  in  the  following  pages. 

From  the  movements  taking  place  among  the 
great  maritime  powers  of  the  world,  England,  Ger- 
many, France  and  America,  in  regard  to  the  islands 
of  the  Pacific  Ocean,  with  all  of  which  the  intelligent 
reader  is  familiar,  the  author  is  strengthened  in  the 
hope  that  a  work  relating  to  a  region  of  such  vast 
prospective  benefits  to  the  United  States,  and  the 
world  at  large,  may  be  read  with  some  degree  of 
interest  as  well  as  profit. 

The  immense  field  encompassed  within  the  bound- 
aries of  Oceanica,  together  with  many  island  groups 

3 

626869 


iv  PREFACE. 

lying  beyond  its  limits,  would  make  it  almost  impossi- 
ble to  visit  and  survey  in  the  lifetime  of  any  one 
person.  From  this  fact,  I  am  sure  the  writer  will  be 
dealt  lightly  with,  for  the  necessary  frequent  reference 
made  to  the  valuable  writings,  notes  and  personal 
experiences  of  others. 

In  the  endeavor  to  brush  away  the  cobwebs  of  time, 
or  brighten  up  or  throw  light  on  the  dark  shadows 
cast  over  many  portions  of  Oceanica  by  the  veil  of 
romance  and  tradition,  I  may  perhaps  be  engaged  in 
a  herculean  tack. 

The  truth,  however,  I  am  sure  will  prove  "stranger 
than  fiction,"  and  a  good  deal  more  profitable.  In  this 
respect  some  pains  have  been  taken  to  make  the 
following  work  in  regard  to  history,  discovery,  eth- 
nology, biography,  chronology,  geography,  area,  pop- 
ulation and  products,  standard  and  reliable. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  I. 

OCEAN    LORE. 

PAGE. 

Pacific  Ocean. — Early  Navigators. — Commercial  Possibil- 
ities.— Japanese  Black  Stream. — South  Sea  Bubble 9 

CHAPTER  II. 

ISLANDS. 

Galapagos  Group. — Marquesas  Group. — Island  of  Juan  Fer- 
andez. — The   Home  of  Crusoe. — Pitcairn  Island — The 
Bounty  Mutineers. — Bread-fruit  Tree. — Table  of  Island 
■  Groups  in  North  and  South  Pacific 21 

CHAPTER   III. 

ISLANDS. 

Austral  Isles. — Gambler  Group. — Society  Islands. — Tahiti. 
'  — Tonga     or    Friendly    Islands. — Hervey   or  Cook's 
Islands. — Fiji  Islands. — New  Hebrides  Group. — Loyalty 
,  Islands. — New  Caledonia 33 

CHAPTER   IV. 

ISLANDS. 

]\Iarshall  Islands.  —  Gilbert  Islands.  —  The  Marshall  Is- 
landers as  Mariners. — Languages  of  Micronesia. — Flora 
and  Fauna  of  the  Marshall  and  Gilbert  Groups. — Mi-c- 
ronesia. — Religious  Beliefs. — Phoenix,  Ellis,  Union  and 
Kermadec  Groups.  —  Navigator  (Samoa)  Islands. — 
Physical  Features  of  Samoa. — Climate. — Products. — 
Inhabitants.  —  Religion.  —  Meteorological.  —  Banks  Is- 
lands.— Santa  Cruz   Islands. — Solomon  Islands 46 

CHAPTER  V. 

ISLANDS. 

Caroline  Islands. — The  Great  Atoll  of  Hogoleu. — Inhabit- 
ants of  the  Caroline  Group. — Pelew  Islands — Atolls. — 


vi.  CONTENTS. 

PAGE. 

Coral  Reefs. — Analogy  of  Coral  Growth  to  Vegetation. 
— Australia. — Physical  Features. — Geological  and  Geo- 
graphical.— New  Zealand. — Tasmania 67 

CHAPTER  VI. 

ISLANDS. 

Java. — General  Features. — Michelet  on  Java. — Topography. 
— Climate. — Little  Java. — Coffee. — The  Island  of  Bor- 
neo.— Topography. — The  Rivers  of  Borneo. — Vege- 
table and  Animal  Kingdom. — Diamond  Mining,  His- 
tory and  Value  of. 81 

CHAPTER  VII. 

ISLANDS. 

Sumatra.  —  Topography. — Animal  Life.  —  Flora. — Climate. 
Inhabitants. — Singapore.  —  Island  of  Celebes. — The 
Sangir  Group. — MoUucca  Islands. — History. — The  Nut- 
meg.— Island  of  Amboyna. — The  Clove. — The  Choco- 
late Bean. — The  Sago  Palm 98 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

ISLANDS. 

New  Guinea. — Admiralty  Islands. — New  Ireland. — New 
Britain. — Louisade  Archipelago. — Phillippine  Islands. 
Topographical  Features.  — Minerals. —  Animals. — The 
Inhabitants. — The  Buccaneer  Dampier. — His  Account 
of  the  Plantain. — Tobacco,  and  its  History 116 

CHAPTER  IX. 

ISLANDS. 

Islands  of  the  Chinese  Empire. — Hainan. — Formosa. — Is- 
lands of  Japan. — History. — The  Japanese  as  Early  Navi- 
gators. — Topography. —  Earthquakes.  — Mineral  and 
Floral  Kingdoms  of  Japan. — The  Inhabitants. — The  Tea 
Plant. — The  Camphor  Tree. — Government  and  Relig- 
ion of  Japan. — The  Ladrone  Islands. — The  Bonin  Is- 
lands.— The  Anson  and  Auckland  Islands 132 

CHAPTER  X. 

ISLANDS. 

Alaska  and  the  Aleutian  Islands. — Islands  of  St.  Paul  and 
St.  George. — Seals,  and  Seal  Fishing. — Their  Habits. — 
Method  of  Killing  .Seal. — Vancouver  Island. — The  Pu- 
get  Sound  Region. — Oueen  Charlotte  Islands. — Islands, 
West  Coast  United  States. — Pacific  Islands  of  Mexico..   147 


CONTENTS.  vii. 

CHAPTER  XI. 

ISLANDS. 

PAGE. 

The  Sandwich  Islands. — Geological  and  Volcanic  Features. 
— The  Sugar  Cane — Its  History. — History  of  the  Ha- 
waiian Group. — The  Cotton  Plant — Its  History. — Prin- 
cipal Islands  in  the  Group. — Volcanic  Mountain  of 
Mauna  Loa. — The  Burning  Lake  of  Kilauea. — Island 
Formation. — Islands,  Pacific  Coast  of  South  America. — 
Guano  Islands. — Easter   Island 171 

CHAPTER  XII. 

ISLAND    PRODUCTS   AND    RESOURCES. 

Pearls  and  Pearl  Fishing. — Habits  of  the  Pearl  Oyster. — 
Pearl  Dredging. — Pearl  Diving. — Noted  Fisheries  and 
Gems. — Propogation  of  the  Pearl  Oyster. — Whale  Fish- 
eries.— The  Turtle  and  its  Habits. — The  Tortoise. — 
Sponge  Fisheries 173 

CHAPTER  XIII. 

ISLAND    PRODUCTS   AND    RESOURCES. 

The  Robber  Crab. — The  Crab  as  a  Gourmand — As  a  Lover 
of  Cocoanuts. — Their  Strength  and  Tenacity. — The 
Plantain  and  Banana. — Beche-de-mer  Fishing. — Method 
of  Fishing. — Contracts  with  the  Natives. — The  Cocoa- 
nut. — Trade  in,  and  Value  of,  the  Nut. —  Coral,  and 
Coral  Fishing 188 

CHAPTER  XIV. 

ISLAND    PRODUCTS    AND    RESOURCES. 

Paper — Its  History.— Cinnamon. — Indigo. — Teak  Wood. — 
Rice. —  Silk. —  Pineapple.  —  Manila  Hemp. —  Pepper. — • 
Gutta  Percha. — Screw  Pine. — Resinous  Gum  Trees. — 
General  Remarks 201 

CHAPTER  XV. 

OCEANIC    ETHNOGRAPHY. 

Oceanic  Races. — Climate. — The  Malays. — The  Polynesians. 
—  The  Microncsians.  —  The  Melanesians.  —  General 
Characteristics. — The  Australians. — Their  Intellectual 
Capacity. — Influence  of  Ocean  Currents. — Asiatic  Influ- 
ences in  Peopling  America. — Island  Races. — The  Equa- 
torial Currents. — Taboo. — A  Small  Tribute  to  Religious 
Missions  and  Missionaries 213 


via.  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  XVI. 

THE    BIRTH,   GROWTH   AND    DEATH    OF    ISLANDS. 

rAGE. 

Volcanic  and  Earthquake  Lore. — Volcanic  Fire-belt  of  the 
Western  Hemisphere. — Its  Flow  through  South  Amer- 
ica.— Through  Central  America  and  Mexico,  and  the 
Pacific  Coast. — Through  the  Islands. — Theory  of  Vol- 
canoes and  Earthquakes 243 

CHAPTER  XVII 

COMMERCE,   AND    INTEROCEANIC    CANALS. 

The  Panama  Canal. — Memorandum  Statement  of  Panama 
Canal.  —  Nicaragua  Canal. —  The  Eads  Tehuantepec 
Ship  Railway. — Commercial  Results  Anticipated. — Po- 
litical Considerations  of  the  Canal  Question 255 

CHAPTER  XVIII. 

CURRENTS,  WINDS,  RAINS    AND   STORMS    OF    THE    PACIFIC. 

Velocity  and  Force  of  Wind. — Monsoons. — Effect  of  Mon- 
soons.— Typhoons — Their  Explanation.  —  Rainfall  of 
the  Pacific  Islands. — List  of  (with  Latitude  and  Longi- 
tude) the  Principal  Harbors  in  the  Island  World 270 

CHAPTER  XIX. 

HISTORICAL    AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 

The  Merchants  of  the  Olden  Time. — The  Phoenicians. — 
Their  Commerce.— Their  Inventions  and  Manufactures. 
As  Navigators. — The  Compass. —  Properties  of  the 
Magnetic  Needle.  —  By  Whom  Invented. — Homer's 
Knowledge  of  Ship  Building. —  Early  Navigators  of 
the  Pacific —  (Anson. —  Balboa.  —  Beechey. —  Banks. — 
Bougainville. —  Behring. — Byron. — Carteret. — ^Cook. — 
Cavendish.  —  Dampier.  —  Uana.  —  Darwin.  —  Drake. — 
Cortez. — Fernandez. — Fitzroy. — Franklin.— Humboldt. 
Kotzebue. —  Krusenstern. —  Magellan. —  Perry. —  Pizar- 
ro. — La  Perouse.  —  Polo. —  Quiros. —  Rogers. — Saave- 
dra.  —  Schouten,  W.  C.  —  Schouten,  G.  —  Tasman. — 
Vancouver. — Wilkes.) 290 

CHAPTER  XX. 

ISLAND    MISCELLANY,   AND    DEPTHS    OF   THE   SEA. 

Norfolk  Island. — The  Chatam  Group. — Ponape  or  Ascension 
Lsland. — Strong  Island. — Ocean  Island. — The  Depths 
of  the  Ocean. — Bottom  of  the  Sea 328 


CHAPTER   I. 


OCHAB{    L,ORB 


Thou  glorious  mirror,  where  the  Almighty's  form 

Glasses  itself  in  tempests  ;  in  all  time, 
Calm  or  convulsed — in  breeze,  or  gale  or  storm, 

Icing  the  pole,  or  in  the  torrid  clime 
Dark  heaving — boundless,  endless  and  sublime. — 

Byron  { Childe  Harold). 

PACIFIC    OCEAN. 

IN  1513,  three  hundred  and  seventy-one  years  ago, 
Balboa  was  dragging  the  timbers  of  his  ship  across 
the  Isthmus  of  Darien,  from  the  Atlantic  to  the 
Pacific  shore.  RebuildinQf  his  vessel  there,  he  was  the 
first,  in  our  modern  day,  to  sail  on  the  great  ocean 
waters.  If  gifted  with  supernatural  vision,  he  would 
have  seen  the  Pacific  Ocean,  spread  out  over  an  area 
of  eighty  million  square  miles,  covering  nearly  all  of 
the  western  hemisphere.  Its  mighty  waves,  laving 
the  eastern  shores  of  Asia  on  the  one  hand,  and  the 
western  coasts  of  the  two  gfreat  American  continents 
on  the  other.  Reaching  almost  to  the  birth-places 
of  the  ice-bergs  of  either  pole,  embracing  the  heat  of 
the  Torrid  Zones,  it  includes  all  the  climates  of  the 
world  in  its  vast  limits.  He  would  have  seen,  north 
of  the  equator,  the  Kuro   Shiwo,  the  Japanese  Black 


TO  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

Stream,  sweeping  in  immense  circles  from  left  to 
right.  South  of  the  line,  the  Humboldt,  or  Peruvian 
Cold  Current,  circling  from  right  to  left.  Both  form- 
ing the  highways  over  which  it  is  thought  the  Asiatics 
voyaged  to  people  our  western  world.  In  the  depths 
of  the  great  ocean — nearly  three  miles — almost  beyond 
reach  of  the  sounding-line,  would  be  seen  alike,  the 
cradle  and  tomb  of  the  island  world  of  the  Pacific. 

Thousands  on  thousands  of  islands  would  come 
into  view,  like  great  emeralds  dotting  the  mighty  sea ; 
with  the  tempest,  typhoon  and  hurricane  pursuing 
their  furious  course  over  the  broad  expanse  of  waters, 
subdued  longf  before  the  transit  of  the  grreat  sea  is 
performed — walled  in  and  held  back  by  the  placid 
seas  surrounding  them. 

So  larofe,  indeed,  is  the  Pacific,  orreater  in  area 
than  all  other  oceans  combined,  that  the  habitable 
portions  of  our  globe,  the  land,  would  be  lost  in  its 
limits,  and  yet  a  sea  larger  in  extent  than  the  Atlantic 
be  left. 

EARLY    NAVIGATORS. 

The  discovery,  location  and  conquest  of  many 
islands  of  the  Pacific  Ocean  comes  to  us,  out  of  the 
dim  past,  surrounded  by  a  halo  of  romance.  The 
names  of  famous  navigators  rise  up  in  the  mind, 
recalled  by  history,  as  pioneers  in  the  mighty  progress 
of  the  new  world. 

The  quaint  accounts  of  Captains  Cook  and  Wallis 
were  taken  up  and  confirmed  by  the  old  salts  of  Nan- 
tucket and  New  Bedford.  Their  stories  of  the  wealth, 
beauty  and  fertility  of  the  myriads  of  islands  met  with 
in  their  whaling  voyages,  has  long  excited  the  curiosity 
of  the  world.     The   singular   fatality,  too,  that  seems 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  ii 

to  have  followed  nearly  all  the  fathers  of  navigation 
in  the  Pacific  has  but  added  interest  in  their  voyages 
and  discoveries.  Vasco  Nunez  de  Balboa,  who  took 
possession  of  the  entire  South  Sea  in  the  name  of 
the  Pope,  fell  under  the  headsman's  axe.  Magellan, 
the  first  to  reach  the  Indies,  by  a  western  route, 
through  the  Straits  that  bear  his  name,  died  by  the 
sword,  in  a  petty  religious  quarrel  with  some  island 
king.  Alonzo  de  Saavedra,  he  who  attempted  the 
passage  of  the  North  Pacific,  from  Manilla  to  Mexico, 
the  reputed  discoverer  of  New  Guinea,  which  he  named 
Tierra  de  Oro,  met  a  lowly  fate  on  the  equator. 

This  same  Saavedia,  was  probably  the  first  to 
propose  cutting  a  canal  through  the  Isthmus  of  Darien, 
at  Panama.  In  his  proposition  to  the  King  of  Spain 
on  this  subject,  and  in  his  memoirs,  he  goes  into  the 
enterprise  in  detail,  and  recommends  the  forcible 
employment  of  the  inhabitants  of  that  region,  to 
accomplish  his  object.  He  states  that  "Providence 
had  evidently  placed  them  there,  in  order  that  they 
by  their  labors,  might  assist  in  the  extension  of  the 
commerce  of  Christendom."  Captain  Cook  fell  among 
the  savages  of  the  Sandwich  Islands.  Sir  Humphrey 
Gilbert  was  lost  in  a  storm  at  sea.  The  chains  and 
anchors  of  the  vessel  of  M.  de  la  Perouse  were  found, 
but  his  ultimate  fate  has  never  been  ascertained.  Oth- 
ers, like  William  Dampier,  Roggewein  and  Fernando 
Ouiros,  were  destined  to  what  many  would  consider 
a  more  melancholy  ending.  Dying  in  poverty,  for- 
gotten, unhonored  and  unsung,  in  their  native  land. 
Of  Ouiros,  Cardinal  Valenza  says:  'T  have  seen  in  a 
wine-shop  of  Seville,  one  Fernando  Quiros,  who  had 
been  an  adventurer  in  the  Indies  and  beyond,  and 
who  told  me   he   had  seen  there  people  who  did  eat 


12  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

their  wives  and  other  relatives,  in  place  of  consigning 
them  to  the  tombs,  which  did  not  so  much  surprise 
me,  seeing  that  the  same  thing  has  been  related  by 
the  ancients." 

COMMERCIAL    POSSIBILITIES. 

It  is  only  of  very  late  years  that  we — I  speak  more 
particularly  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  Pacific  Coast — 
have  begun    to    reap   commercial    benefits,  in  a  large 
way,  from   traffic  with   the   islands  of  the  South  Sea. 
Growing  rapidly  as  we  are  in  wealth  and    population, 
the  time  has  come  when  every  effort  should   be   made 
to  encompass   a   large  share  of  the  trade.      The  won- 
derful impetus  which  is  now  being  given  to  commercial 
enterprise  on  the  western  coast  of  North  America,  by 
the  completion  of  three  continental  railways  across  our 
country,  with  still  another  under  way,  will  go  far  to 
make  San  Francisco  one  of  the  greatest  commercial 
cities  on  the  globe. 

Fifty  years  ago  the  multitudinous  islands  of  the 
Pacific  were  but  litde  known.  Their  vast  number, 
nearly  8,000 — their  area  fully  4,600.000  square  miles 
— populated  by  over  77,000,000  inhabitants,  are  yet 
almost  as  an  unknown  land  to  our  people. 

If  we  compare  the  area,  exports  and  imports  of 
the  Sandwich  Islands  (with  the  port  of  San  Francisco 
alone)  with  the  area  of  the  Pacific  Islands,  whose 
exports  and  imports,  are  now  about  $700,000,000  per 
annum,  the  values  would  reach  the  vast  sum  of  $7,790,- 
000,000.  Something  over  five  times  the  average 
annual  exports  and  imports  of  the  United  States  for 
the  last  four  years. 

Truly  "there  is  a  wonderful  land:  a  land  of 
fertility,   of  spices,    of  valuable    fibres,    of  sago   and 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  13 

cinnamon,  of  sandal  wood  and  gold,"  and  widiout  a 
doubt  die  islands  of  die  Soudi  Sea,  are  of  diis  de- 
scription. The  climate  is  unsurpassed  in  an}^  part  of 
the  world,  and  is  both  conducive  to  health  and  lon- 
gevity. With  the  thermometer  rarely  below  65  de- 
grees, and  hardly  ever  reaching  above  86  degrees, 
we  have  a  perpetual  summer  of  so  delightful  a  tem- 
perature that  working  men  of  Europe  or  America  may 
devote  themselves  to  a  life  of  pleasant  and  profitable 
labor  all  the  year  'round.  If  we  add  to  this,  lands  of 
inexhaustible  fertility,  we  have  within  easy  distance  of 
our  port  millions  on  millions  of  acres  of  soil,  far  sur- 
passing that  of  the  famed  West  Indies. 

When  it  is  considered  that  the  area  of  the  latter 
islands  is  only  about  one-fiftieth  of  the  islands  of  the 
South  Sea,  that  the  population  exceeds  that  of  the 
West  Indies  nearly  eighteen  times,  that  the  exports 
and  imports  of  the  latter  are  over  seventy-five  millions 
per  annum,  some  idea  may  be  formed  of  the  vast  com- 
mercial interests  that  will  arise  from  the  occupation, 
development  and  trade  with  the  islands  of  the  Pacific. 

With  the  exception  of  the  more  prominent  islands 
put  down  on  the  list,  already  well  known  to  the  com- 
mercial world,  the  great  majority  remain  as  a  sealed 
book,  so  far  as  their  agricultural,  mineral  and  other 
qualifications  are  concerned.  In  fact,  if  any  trade  has 
ever  existed  among  them,  it  has  been  carried  on  by 
men  without  means,  who  have  become  tired  of  the  sea, 
castaways,  pirates  and  refugees.  A  class  as  much 
to  be  feared  as  the  traditional  man-eater.  It  is  not 
strange,  therefore,  that  the  many  valuable  interests 
that  could  could  be  developed  in  these  garden-spots 
of  the  world  suffer  and  languish  when  under  the 
control  of  such  spirits. 


14  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

THE  JAPANESE  BLACK  STREAM. 

San  Francisco  lies  directly  in  the  track  of  the 
great  ocean  current,  that,  like  the  Gulf  Stream  of  the 
Atlantic,  flows  in  the  Pacific.  This  current  is  known 
as  the  Kuro  Shiwo,  or  Japanese  Black  Stream.  If  we 
assume  its  point  of  commencement  to  be  off  the  coast 
of  Japan,  it  would  trend  northerly  from  that  country, 
one  portion  flowing  to  and  around  the  Aleutian  Isles 
in  Behring  Sea,  while  the  other,  or  main  current,  flows 
more  to  the  east,  towards  our  northern  coast,  which 
it  reaches  just  south  of  Queen  Charlotte  Islands,  off 
the  coast  of  British  Columbia.  Running  thence 
southerly  along  the  shores  of  Washington  Territory 
and  Oregon,  and  along  the  coast  of  California,  it  turns 
south  by  west  just  off  the  harbor  of  San  Francisco. 
Dividing  again  at  this  point,  one  stream  flows  by  the 
Hawaiian  Isles,  and  westerly  among  the  islands  of  the 
North  Pacific,  and  again  northerly  to  the  coast  of 
Japan.  The  other  division  flows  in  a  more  southerly 
direction  until  the  equator  is  reached,  where  it  turns 
to  the  west,  running  among  the  myriads  of  islands 
in  that  region,  turning  to  the  north,  and  flowing  by 
and  to  the  east  of  the  Philippines,  reaching  an  as- 
sumed starting  point  off  the  coast  of  Japan.  The 
Kuro  Shiwo  flows  at  the  rate  of  ten  to  fifteen  miles 
per  day,  and  must  in  its  great  silent  way  render  invalu- 
able service  in  helping  preserve  the  temperate  climate 
along  the  coast  as  well  as  in  the  interior  of  the  States 
bordering  the  Pacific.  Its  great  value  in  favoring 
commerce  to  and  from  our  port  with  the  lands  of  the 
South  Sea,  can  hardly  be  over  estimated. 

With   the   completion  of  the   Panama  and  Nica- 
ragua   canals,    great    commercial     gateways    will    be 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  13 

opened  between  the  Pacific  and  Atlantic  oceans,  and 
a  trade  with  the  whole  world  offered  to  the  islands  of 
the  Pacific  that  will  in  time  become  gigantic  in  its 
proportions.  To  encompass  this,  it  is  safe  to  predict 
that  the  great  maratime  powers  will  contend. 

Commercial  cities  like  New  York,  Boston,  New 
Orleans  and  San  Francisco  will  grasp  at  the  facilities 
offered  by  the  short  routes  created  by  the  canals,  and 
the  sails  of  all  nations  will  dot  the  southern  seas. 

A  personal  experience  among  the  islands  of  the 
Pacific  in  commercial  and  other  ventures,  leads  me  to 
Avrite  on  this  subject,  with  a  little  knowledge  and  a 
great  deal  of  interest.  While  it  would  take  volumes 
to  do  justice  to  this  subject,  in  a  detailed  account,  it 
shall  be  my  endeavor  to  present  such  features  and 
facts  in  a  condensed  form  as  may  interest  and  prove 
of  value  to  many  readers.  Among  the  myriads  of 
islands,  which  I  have  placed  in  groups,  as  will  be  seen 
in  the  tables,  I  have  given  but  a  short  description  of 
one  or  more  in  a  group.  It  being  understood  that 
the  description  may  be  accepted  as  generally  applica- 
ble to  all  the  islands  of  a  particular  cluster,  excepting 
l^erhaps,  the  number  of  inhabitants,  size  and  locality. 

SOUTH    SEA    BUBBLE. 

One  of  the  obstacles  to  be  surmounted  in  favora- 
bly presenting  the  vast  interests  to  be  found  in  those 
garden-spots  of  the  world,  the  Pacific  Islands,  is  the 
ban  put  upon  all  concerted  ventures  that  have  been 
attempted  in  these  regions  by  the  great  financial 
crash  of  the  South  Sea  company  in  years  long  passed 
away.  In  fact,  the  term  "South  Sea  Bubble"  is  gen- 
erally   used    as   a   synonym    for    all    enterprises  not 


i6  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

based  upon  solid  foundations,  die  popular  impression 
prevailing'  that  the  great  failure  of  this  company  came 
from  commercial  and  other  ventures  made  in  the 
South  Sea. 

The  truth  is,  the  company  had  no  ventures  or 
interests  in  that  region  resulting  in  failure,  for  if  we 
except  one  vessel  only,  that  made  a  trading  voyage  in 
1 71 7,  and  that,  too,  to  Spanish  South  America,  in  the 
interests  of  the  corporation,  there  are  no  accounts  of 
practical  commercial  operations  entered  into  in  the 
Pacific  \y^  this  company.  True,  they  had  some  valua- 
ble privileges  from  the  English  Government,  as  well 
as  from  Spain,  that  theory  and  misrepresentation 
easily  built  into  a  supposed  practical  trading  mo- 
nopoly, although  their  operations  were  principally 
financial  and  stock  jobbing,  and  confined  altogether 
to  London. 

The  fabulous  stories  and  traditions  of  the  Spanish 
South  American  countries,  among  which  were  Chile 
and  Peru,  the  vast  wealth  in  gold,  silver  and  jewels,  to 
gether  with  well  concocted  stories  of  the  wonderful  pro 
ductions  of  the  soil,  and  the  supposed  exclusive  rights 
obtained  from  the  king  of  Spain,  formed  the  corner- 
stone of  the  South  Sea  Company.  After  the  treaty 
of  Utrecht,  Spain  withdrew  all  grants  and  privileges 
made  to  the  corporation,  yet  the  wealth  and  power  of 
its  directors,  with  the  prestige  of  a  long  list  of  rich 
stockholders,  enabled  the  company  to  retain  a  footing 
in  great  financial  circles.  As  a  valuable  support  to 
the  schemes  of  the  corporation,  the  wonderful  pro- 
ducts of  the  Pacific  Islands,  then  making  their  way 
into  all  parts  of  Asia  and  Europe,  were  used  as  a 
lever  in  its  advancement.  The  shells,  pearls,  fruits 
and   spices,  the   whalebone    and  oil,    the  rich   results 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  rj 

of  land  and  sea,  were  cunning-lj^  interwoven  into  a 
project  that  at  one  time  set  all  Europe  wild  with  greedy 
anticipation. 

In  1 7 1 1 ,  the  Earl  of  Oxford,  who  was  Lord  Treas- 
urer of  the  Kingdom,  finding  the  credit  of  the  Govern- 
ment somewhat  impaired,  conceived  the  scheme  of 
funding  a  portion  of  the  national  debt  of  Great  Britain, 
then  amounting,  in  round  numbers,  to  $155,000,000. 
Of  this  sum,  he  proposed  to  fund  $50,000,000  by  issu- 
ing bonds  of  the  Government,  which  were  to  be  paid, 
interest  and  principal,  by  special  regular  duties  upon 
silks,  wines,  tobacco,  and  some  of  the  other  most  val- 
uable importations.  Purchasers  of  the  bonds  were  to 
receive  a  certain  amount  of  South  Sea  stock  with  each 
Government  bond,  that  stock  beinijf  then  considered  of 
sufficient  value  to  offer  a  tempting  bait  in  attempting 
to  float  the  amount  required.  The  credit  of  the  Gov- 
ernment, with  the  six  per  cent,  interest,  together  with 
the  shares  of  the  South  Sea  Company,  and  certain  trad- 
ing privileges  allowed  to  the  corporation  in  trade  with 
South  America,  made  it  an  easy  matter  to  fund  the 
$50,000,000. 

Meantime,  the  company  was  using  every  influence 
to  establish  and  enlarge  its  credit,  and  though  partially 
opposed  in  its  schemes  by  many  of  the  great  statesmen 
and  financiers  of  Europe,  the  Bank  of  England  and 
the  East  hidia  Company,  the  advancement  of  the 
"bubble"  interests  met  with  a  curious  success  on 
every  hand.  But  it  was  not  until  1720  that  the  com- 
pany reached  the  zenith  of  its  influence  and  power, 
which  culminated  in  offering  to  take  the  whole  national 
debt  of  Great  Britain  on  its  shoulders  at  a  reduced 
interest,  but  otherwise  on  similar  terms  to  the  first 
loan.     In  17 19,  so   many  and   great  had  become  the 


j8  the  island  world 

schemes  of  the  company,  that  it  was  found  necessary 
to  increase  its  capital  stock  to  nearly  ^60,000,000,  with 
shares  set  at  a  par  value  of  $500. 

The  Bank  of  England,  fearful  of  the  rapidly-growing 
power  of  the  South  Sea  Company,  made  a  similar 
proposition  to  the  Government,  offering  as  a  premium 
$15,000,000.  This  offer  was  more  than  doubled 
by  the  South  Sea  Company,  Under  the  wing  of  even 
royalty  itself,  and  with  emissaries  and  agents  in  every 
quarter  promulgating  the  most  fabulous  stories,  backed 
up  by  the  free  use  of  money  and  presents  of  stock,  the 
corporation  had  their  offer  accepted  in  both  Houses  of 
Parliament,  by  a  vote  of  83  to  17  in  the  House  of  Lords 
and  172  to  55  in  the  Commons.  So  well  were  the  plans 
laid,  and  so  general  was  the  desire  for  speculation,  that 
the  shares  of  the  company  were  eagerly  sought  after 
at  $1,500  per  share.  On  the  14th  day  of  April,  1720, 
subscription  books  were  opened  to  the  public,  of  $10,- 
000,000  of  stock  at  $1,500  per  share,  and  was  almost 
immediately  taken,  with  $1,000,000  more  before  the 
books  were  closed.  On  the  30th  of  April  of  the  same 
month  and  year,  a  further  amount  of  $5,000,000  was 
offered  at  $2,000  per  share,  and  the  amount  taken  in  a 
few  days,  and  $2,500,000  in  addition.  As  an  illustra- 
tion of  greed  and  infatuation  of  a  speculative  people, 
hoodwinked  by  stories  only  found  in  sober  moments  in 
the  "Arabian  Nights"  and  tales  of  like  ilk,  history  fur- 
nishes but  few  equals.  Rich  and  poor  alike  parted 
with  the  most  substantial  securities,  many  leaving  them 
in  the  hands  of  the  company  to  secure  a  preference  of 
shares,  without  limit  as  to  price.  The  stock  rose  rap- 
idly to  $2,500,  $3,000,  $3,500,  with  many  fluctuations, 
and  reached  the  top  figure  of  $5,000  per  share,  equal  to 
$300,000,000 — when   the  bubble  burst.     It  gradually 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  ig 

leaked  out  that  the  chairman  of  the  company,  Sir  John 
Blunt,  a  man  of  low  origin  but  extraordinary  financial 
ability,  and  one  of  the  chief  projectors  of  the  scheme, 
togfether  with  the  favored  few  havinor-  the  manao-ement 
of  its  affairs,  were  selling  out.  The  ruin  and  desola- 
tion that  followed — the  disappointment,  rage  and  desire 
for  reveno^e  of  the  deluded  ones — turned  all  Ensfland 
into  a  chaos  of  financial  distress. 

Parliament  was  convened,  and  measures  immedi- 
ately taken  for  the  punishment  of  the  schemers,  who, 
but  a  little  while  back,  were  lauded  as  the  kings  of 
finance.  Many  of  the  leaders  were  arrested  and  im- 
prisoned, and  a  fine  of  $10,000,000  imposed  and  col- 
lected, to  be  distributed  among  the  deluded  stockhold- 
ers. The  Bank  of  England  and  the  East  India  Com- 
pany were  induced  to  come  to  the  rescue,  they  taking 
and  sustaining  millions,  and  easing  down  one  of  the 
greatest  financial  crashes  in  the  history  of  any  country. 
Enough  of  the  stock  and  bonds  of  the  company  were 
secured,  together  with  the  fines  imposed,  to  enable 
the  Government  to  declare  a  dividend  amongr  the 
stockholders  of  nearly  forty  per  cent,  still  leaving  an 
immense  sum  to  be  carried  and  taken  care  of  by  the 
Government. 

One  hundred  and  twenty-five  years  after  the  incipi- 
ency  of  this  scheme,  I  find  the  following  in  a  financial 
statement  of  the  funds  of  Great  Britain  : 

South  Sea  Debt  and  Anindties. — This  portion  of 
the  debt,  amounting,  on  the  5th  of  January,  1836,  to 
10,144,584  pounds  sterling,  or  $50,722,920  of  our 
money,  is  all  that  now  remains  of  the  capital  of  the 
once  famous,  or  rather  infamous,  South  Sea  Company. 
The  company  has,  for  a  considerable  time  past,  ceased 
to  have  anything  to  do  with  trade,  so  that  the  functions 


20  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

of  the  directors  are  wholly  restricted  to  the  transfer  of 
the  company's  stock  and  the  payment  of  the  dividends 
on  it,  both  of  which  operations  are  performed  at  the 
South  Sea  House,  and  not  at  the  bank.  The  dividends 
of  the  old  South  Sea  annuities  are  payable  on  the  5th 
of  April  and  loth  of  October;  the  dividends  on  the  rest 
of  the  company's  stock  are  payable  on  the  5th  of  Jan- 
uary and  5th  of  July. 

In  1727,  three-fifths  of  the  public  debt  of  England 
was  held  by  the  South  Sea  Company — or  about  two 
hundred  and  seventeen  millions,  five  hundred  thousand 
dollars. 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  21 


CHAPTER  II. 


ISI<AI«(D$$ 


Call  us  not  weeds,  we  are  the  flowers  of  the  sea. 

E.  L.  AVELINE. 


GALAPAGOS    GROUP. 

IN  making  a  journey  through  these  garden  spots  of 
the  Pacific,  for  geographical  reasons,  it  is  assumed 
that  our  voyage  commences  at  the    Galapagos  Is- 
lands ;  and  that  all  longitudes  are  taken  from  Green- 
wich, east  or  west,  as  the  case  may  be. 

The  Galapagos,  some  fifteen  in  number,  lie  on 
both  sides  of  the  equator,  being  about  600  miles  west- 
erly from  the  coast  of  Ecuador,  to  which  republic  they 
belong.  Their  area  is  3,000  square  miles,  with  a  popu- 
lation of  4,000.  The  principal  islands  in  the  group  are 
Albemarle,  James,  Chatam,  Indefatigable,  Hood, 
Charles  and  Narboro.  Their  curious  geological  for- 
mation, and  evident  volcanic  origin,  has  given  rise  to 
much  speculation  on  the  part  of  scientists.  There  are 
to  be  seen  in  the  group  nearly  2,000  craters  of  extinct 
volcanoes,  leaving  one  with  the  impression,  that  a  per- 
manent residence  here,  with  the  fear  of  an  eruption 
continually  before  the  mind,  would  not  be  pleasant. 
There  is  probably  no  place  in  the  world,  where  turtles 


22  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

are  so  abundant,  as  at  these  islands.  In  their  laying 
season  they  literally  swarm  along  the  shores,  and  are 
hunted  and  slaughtered  by  thousands.  An  establish- 
ment or  several  of  them,  might  be  located  here  for 
catching  and  canning  turtle,  that  would  no  doubt  prove 
a  great  success,  and  is  well  worth  the  thought  and  en- 
terprise of  the  commercial  world. 

THE    MARQUESAS    GROUP. 

Leaving  the  Galapagos,  we  sail  away  west  by 
south  for  the  Marquesas  Archipelago,  discovered  by 
Mendana  in  1595.  The  islands  in  this  group  stand 
high  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  some  of  the  mountain 
peaks  towering  up  in  the  clouds,  while  their  steep  and 
rugged  sides,  sweep  down  in  many  places  to  the  waters 
edge. 

They  are  thirty-five  in  number,  situated  between 
latitudes  7  deg.  53  min.  and  10  deg.  30  min.  south,  and 
longitudes  138  deg.  43  min.  and  140  deg.  44  min. 
west.  The  area  of  the  whole  group  is  something  like 
1 200  square  miles,  with  a  population  of  20,000  people. 

We  found  the  landings  here  very  difficult,  and 
were  forced  to  lay  off  and  on,  quite  a  distance  from 
shore.  Nuka-Hiva,  the  principal  island,  is  about 
eighteen  miles  long  from  east  to  west,  and  ten  miles 
wide.  After  several  attempts  we  finally  made  a  land- 
ing, and  were  very  agreeably  surprised  at  the  great 
beauty  and  fertility  of  the  lands  back  from  the  coast. 
Many  of  the  valleys  in  the  interior  were  one  mass  of 
tropical  foliage!,  with  the  huts  of  the  natives  peeping 
here  and  there,  from  amono;  the  q-roves  of  cocoanut, 
bread  fruit  and  oranee  trees.  The  natives,  althouMi 
kind  and  hospitable  to  our  party  to  the  last  degree. 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  23 

were  in  appearance  anything  but  attractive.  The  men 
particularly,  being  tatooed  in  all  the  different  fantastic 
styles  of  that  art.  At  a  short  distance  they  had  the 
appearance  of  being  clad  in  chain  armor,  painted  blue. 
The  women  are  much  fairer  than  the  men,  and  only 
tatoo  the  face,  with  a  few  disfiguring  spots  on  the  lips. 
We  saw  several  Polynesian  Bibles  in  the  huts  of  the 
natives,  nearly  all  of  whom  claim  to  be  Christians.  Yet 
from  all  accounts  we  were  among  the  decendants  of 
veritable  man  eaters ;  people  who  practice  all  the 
heathenish  and  superstitious  rites  of  their  ancestors ; 
and  roast  and  eat  their  prisoners  of  war.  Many  of  the 
islands  of  this  group  have  well  watered,  beautiful  val- 
leys, well  suited  to  the  cultivation  of  coffee,  sugar, 
cotton  and  other  tropical  products. 

From  the  Marquesas  we  sail  nearly  due  south,  to 
that  vast  collection  of  coral  islands  known  on  maps 
and  charts  as  the  Low  Archipelago  or  Paumotu 
Group.  There  are  In  all  about  seventy-eight  islands 
and  like  the  Marquesas  and  Society  groups,  are  under 
a  French  protectorate.  All  except  twenty  of  them  are 
Inhabited,  The  natives  are  a  lawless  and  savaee  set, 
their  greatest  merit  being  the  smallness  of  their  num- 
bers. However,  some  Improvement  has  been  notice- 
able among  them  lately,  especially  In  their  houses, 
clothing,  and  mode  of  living ;  the  trade  In  pearls,  pearl 
shell,  and  cocoanut  oil,  the  principal  products  of  this 
group,  affording  them  the  means  for  this  desirable  ad- 
vancement. 

ISLAND    OF   JUAN    FERNANDEZ. 

Still  further  south  and  to  the  east,  in  latitude  34 
deg.  about  400  miles  west  from  Valparaiso,  lies  Juan 
Fernandez,  in   size  some  thirteen  miles  long  by  four 


24  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

miles  wide,  discovered  in  1563  by  the  famous  pilot' 
and  navigator,  whose  name  it  bears.  It  will  always 
retain  a  marked  prominence  in  island  histories,  being 
at  one  time  the  home  of  that  celebrated,  castaway 
Alexander  Selkirk,  whose  life  and  adventures  have 
been  made  so  intensely  interesting  to  youthful  minds, 
and  older  ones  too.  for  that  matter,  by  Defoe  in  his 
wonderful  book.  '•  Robinson  Crusoe."'  Selkirk  was 
sailing  master  of  the  war  galley  Citiquc  Porte,  and 
through  a  quarrel  with  Captain  Straddling,  asked  to 
be  put  ashore  on  the  island,  which  request  was 
granted,  and  such  supplies  furnished  him.  as  might  be 
most  needed  in  his  lonely  hermitage. 

THE    HOME    OF    CRUSOE. 

In  1868  the  officers  of  H.  M.  S.  Topaze  erected 
a  tablet  at  the  mouth  of  a  small  valley  that  trav- 
ersed the  land,  and  which  gave  the  only  clear  out- 
look to  the  ocean  from  the  island.  At  the  north- 
ern end  of  this  gap  may  be  seen  the  tablet,  with 
inscription  reading:  "In  memor)'  of  Alexander  Sel- 
kirk, mariner,  a  native  of  Laigo.  in  the  count}'  of 
Fife.  Scotland,  who  was  on  this  island  in  complete 
solitude  for  four  years  and  four  months.  He  was 
landed  from  the  Cinqiie  Porte,  galley,  96  tons,  16 
guns,  in  1704.  a.  d.,  and  was  taken  off  by  the  Duke, 
privateer  (Captain  Wood  Rogers),  12th  of  Februar>% 
1709.  He  died  lieutenant  of  the  Weyrnoiith,  in  1723, 
s.  D.,  aged  forty-seven  years.  This  tablet  was  erected 
near  'Selkirk's  Lookout,'  by  Commodore  Powell  and 
officers  of  H.  M.  S.  Topaze,  1868,  a.  d." 

In  justice  to  the  author  of  Crusoe,  I  quote  still 
further,  from  the  journal  of  the  officers  of  H.  M.  S. 


OF  TJHi  J'ACIFIC  OCEAN  25 

Zealous:  "We  left  Torne  on  December  21st,  and 
arrived  at  the  island  of  Juan  Fernandez  early  in  the 
morning  of  the  24th.  It  is  difficult  to  imagine  a  more 
impressive  bit  of  scenery  than  that  which  greets  the 
eye  on  coming  on  deck,  and  seeing  it  for  ihe  first 
time  after  anchoring.  We  lay  close  to  the  shore, 
which  went  up  almost  perpendicular  to  a  height,  in 
some  places,  of  3,000  feet,  towering  above;  us  like  a 
hug(;  giant.  These  heights  faced  us  in  the  shape  of 
a  semi-circle,  and  to  all  appearances  we  lay  in  the 
middle  of  an  extinct  crater,  of  which  the  other  half 
of  the  circle  had  been  thrown  into  the  sea,  and  now 
formed  our  anchorage.  Every  appearance  justified 
this  idea.  No  doubt  a  vast  eruption  took  place  many 
years  ago,  which  produced  this  wonderful  formation. 
At  night  particularly  it  looks  very  grand,  and  from  its 
closeness  and  height,  appears  to  be  right  over  your 
head,  standing  out  clear  and  distinct  against  the  sky. 
"The  island  belon&fs  to  Chili,  and  there  are  now 
resident  on  it  five  families,  possessing  nineteen  chil- 
dren, three  cows,  four  sheep,  several  horses,  and  goats 
innumerable,  which  latter  abound  on  the  other  side 
of  the  island.  The  jjrincipal  personage  in  this  little 
community  spoke  English  remarkably  well.  He  told 
us  they  were  perfectly  happy,  never  were  ill,  and  had 
no  desire  to  leave  the  island.  A  state  of  bliss 
comprised  in  these  three  statements  difficult  to  be 
understood ;  but  though  only  attributable  to  the 
lowered  state  of  the  intellectual  faculties,  a  state 
which  it  would  be  good  to  meet  with  more  frequent!)- 
amongst  cultivated  nations.  Juan  Fernandez  was  dis- 
covered in  1567,  but  from  that  time,  I  should  imagine, 
no  advantage  was  taken  of  its  discovery — except  occa- 
sional visits  of  buccaneers — till  the  year   i  705,  when 


26  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

Alexander  Selkirk  was  placed  on  shore  for  mutiny 
towards  his  captain.  For  more  than  four  years  he 
lived  alone  on  this  island,  when  at  last  he  was  dis- 
covered and  taken  off  by  Captain  Rodgers,  amongst 
whose  crew  was  a  man  who  had  been  on  board  Sel- 
kirk's ship  when  he  was  put  ashore.  From  Selkirk's 
narrative  Defoe  is  said  to  have  derived  and  written 
his  wonderful  book,  'Robinson  Crusoe.'  Whether 
he  did  so  or  not^  has  been  the  subject  of  much  con- 
troversy. I  will  not  attempt  to  lay  a  dictum,  for  I  do 
not  think  it  matters  now  in  the  slightest  either  way. 
But  in  the  memory  of  Defoe,  who,  as  a  writer,  has 
had  few  equals  before  or  since,  and  for  the  benefit  of 
any  one  interested  In  the  question,  I  must  say  that, 
having  been  led  in  the  imagination  to  picture  this 
island  somewhat  according  to  the  book,  there  is 
nothing  in  Juan  Fernandez  to  give  rise  to  the  belief 
that  Defoe  could  have  received  from  Selkirk  anything 
but  the  idea  from  which  he  constructed  his  famous 
romance.  Moreover,  it  was  not  published  till  the 
year  17 19,  ten  years  after  the  return  of  Selkirk. 

"That  Defoe  took  the  greater  part — as  he  has  been 
accused — of  his  story  from  Selkirk's  journal,  it  is  im- 
possible for  anyone  who  has  seen  the  Island  of  Juan 
Fernandez  to  believe.  His  cave  can  be  seen  now,  cut 
in  a  sand-cliff,  with  the  shelves  in  it  used  for  cooking 
utensils,  etc.;  so  that,  unless  we  concede  the  almost 
impossible  theory  that  when  it  was  visited  by  a  fearful 
earthquake,  in  1 760,  the  whole  island  changed  its  nature 
and  appearance,  we  must  acquit  Defoe  of  plagiarism. 
If  he  did  read  Selkirk's  journal,  it  had  the  effect 
simply  of  making  him  strive  in  every  way  to  show 
there  was  no  connection  or  similitude,  the  one  with 
the  other." 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  2j 


PITCAIRN    ISLAND. 


This  little  dot  on  the  great  ocean's  surface,  lying  in 
latitude  25  deg.  3  min.  south,  and  longitude  130  deg. 
6  min.  west,  is  about  23^  miles  long  by  ly^  wide, made 
famous  as  the  home  of  the  mutineers  of  the  ship 
Bounty.  It  has,  in  addition,  been  of  great  service  to 
the  maritime  world,  being  one  of  the  fresh-water  sta- 
tions resorted  to  by  whalers  and  others  sailing  in  the 
Pacific. 

Pitcairn  Island  was  discovered  in  1767  by  Philip 
Carteret,  navigator,  who  first  sailed  under  Captain 
Wallis  in  1766. 

Although  the  history  of  the  Botinty  mutineers  has 
already  formed  the  theme  of  numerous  writers,  a  very 
brief  statement  of  the  facts  may  not  be  out  of  place 
here,  and  might  prove  interesting  to  the  general  reader. 
Captain  Cook,  in  his  first  voyage  to  Tahiti,  one  of  the 
Society  group,  was  much  pleased  with  the  bread-fruit 
tree,  found  in  great  abundance  there,  and  on  his  return 
suggested  to  the  British  Government  its  many  valuable 
qualities,  not  only  for  the  nutritive  uses,  as  food,  of  the 
fruit,  but  for  the  value  of  its  timber  and  bark  in  a  com- 
mercial way.  He  suggested  transplanting  the  young 
shoots  of  the  tree  to  the  West  India  Islands,  and  the 
vessel  Bounty  was  dispatched  to  Tahiti  for  this  pur- 
pose, under  command  of  Lieut.  Bligh.  It  was  during 
the  voyage  from  Tahiti,  loaded  with  the  plants,  that  the 
mutiny  occurred,  Bligh  being  set  adrift  in  an  open  boat. 
The  mutineers  returned  to  Tahiti,  where  they  remained 
some  time,  recruiting  their  forces  with  natives — also 
persuading  some  of  the  gentler  sex  to  accompany  them 
— when  they  sailed  away,  reaching  Pitcairn  Island 
in  1789.     There  they  established  a  colony,  and  after 


28  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

using  everything  of  value  belonging  to  the  ship  for 
building  and  other  purposes,  the  Boimty  was  burned. 
Many  years  elapsed  before  they  were  discovered,  and 
then  only  by  accident,  through  an  American  ship  cap- 
tain who  landed  there  for  water.  This  being  commu- 
nicated to  the  British  Government,  a  vessel  was  sent, 
not  only  for  their  relief,  but  to  punish  the  ringleaders 
of  the  mutiny. 

Lieut.  Bligh,  after  many  adventures  and  hair- 
breadth escapes  as  a  castaway,  finally  succeeded  in 
o-etting  back  to  England.  He  was  placed  in  command 
of  another  vessel,  and  successfully  accomplished  the 
object  of  his  first  voyage,  transplanting  the  bread-fruit 
tree   of  the  South  Seas   to  the  West   India  Islands  in 

BREAD-FRUIT   TREE. 

The  bread-fruit  tree  (Artocarpus  incisd)  alluded  to 
above,  is  indigenous  to  nearly  all  the  islands  of  the 
South  Sea.  forming,  with  the  cocoanut  and  banana, 
the  principal  sources  of  food  for  the  indolent  jiatives. 
The  tree  grows  from  twenty  to  forty  feet  high,  with  a 
diameter  of  one  to  two  feet.  The  bark  and  inner  por- 
tions furnish  a  valuable  fibre,  while  the  pith  supplies 
the  material  for  much  of  the  paper  cloth  worn  by  the 
natives. 

The  fruit  ripens  at  different  periods  of  the  year. 
It  is  about  the  size  of  a  melon,  and  is  found  singly  and 
in  clusters  attached  to  the  branches  of  the  tree.  There 
are  two  or  three  periods  in  its  growth  when  it  can  be 
used  ;  at  one  time  supplying  a  milky  nutritious  fluid  as 
a  drink,  and  at  another  a  delicious  custard,  but  the 
period  when  it  is  most  used  is  just  before  ripening,  at 
which  time  the  fruit  is  picked  and  baked  in  rude  ovens, 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  2<j> 

the  wholo^  interior,  assuming  the  spongy  form  of 
freshly-baked  l)read,  with  a  pleasant  taste — much  su- 
perior to  the  doughy  preparations,  called  bread,  so 
common  in  Puirope  and  America.  When  baked  in 
this  way,  the  l)read-fruit  can  be  kept  for  several 
months. 

The  timber  of  the  tree  is  used  to  make  many  ar- 
ticles ot  furniture,  and  the  trunk  often  formed  into 
canoes,  etc. 


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CHAPTER   III. 


ISI<A?«I>S 


Behold  the  threaden  sails, 
Borne  with  the  invisible  and  creeping  wind, 
Draw  the  huge  bottoms  through  the  furrow'd  sea, 
Breasting  the  lofty  surge. 

{Heyiry  V.  Act  III.) 


AUSTRAL    ISLES. 

WEST  by  north  from  Pitcairn,  aad  almost  due 
south  from  the  Paumotus,  lie  the  Austral  Isles. 
The  group,  fifteen  or  twenty  in  number,  are 
between  latitudes  22  deg.  and  28  deg.  south,  and  143 
deg.  to  153  deg.  west  longitude.  The  islands  are 
small,  and  of  but  little  commercial  value  at  present. 
Rumbia,  Tubuaia,  Vantaia,  Rumbaia,  Bapai,  Nelson 
and  Oparo  are  the  largest  and  best  known  of  the 
group. 

GAMBIER    GROUP. 

Another  island  cluster,  the  Gambier,  due  south  from 
the  Paumotus,  are  rapidly  growing  in  commercial  impor- 
tance. The  products,  similar  to  those  of  the  Austral  Isles, 
are  altogether  of  the  tropical  kind  ;   the  soil   rich  and 


34  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

productive,  well  suited  for  the  cultivation  of  coffee,  cot- 
ton, sugar  and  spices.  It  is  not  my  purpose  to  describe 
island  groups  located  like  the  Austral  and  Gambier,  in 
more  than  a  general  way.  Lying,  as  they  do,  on  the 
outside  of  the  present  valuable  portion  of  the  island 
world,  their  value  is  in  the  future. 

SOCIETY    ISLANDS. 

Prof.  Dana  in  speaking  of  this  group  says  "that 
they  consist  of  ten  islands,  ranging  in  a  line  250  miles 
long  trending  N.  62  deg.  W.  Commencing  from  the 
north  west  they  are  as  follows :  Tubuai,  Maurua, 
Borabora,  Tahaa,  Raitea,  Hauhine,  Tapuaemanu, 
Eimeo,  Tetuaroa,  Tahiti,  To  this  number  Osna- 
burgh  or  Metia,  may  properly  be  added,  as  it  lies  in 
the  same  range,  about  one  hundred  miles  to  the  west- 
ward of  Tahiti.  With  the  exception  of  Tubuai  and 
Tetuaroa,  they  are  all  basaltic  or  high  islands.  The 
area  of  the  whole  does  not  exceed  twenty-five  miles 
square,  or  600  miles,  and  of  these  about  one-half,  or 
three  hundred  square  miles,  belong  to  the  single 
island  of  Tahiti. 

"  These  basaltic  islands  are  characterized  by  high 
mountains,  deep  precipitous  gorges,  and  that  rich 
livery  of  green  with  which  the  mild  airs  of  a  perpetual 
summer  clothe  the  tropical  islands  of  the  Pacific.  Coral 
reefs  in  some  instances  border  their  shores,  forming  a 
circle  around,  dotted  with  verdant  islets. 

"The  broken  character  of  the  surface  is  most  strik- 
ing on  Eimeo,  yet  all  the  islands  afford  scenes  of 
grandeur  unsurpassed  in  the  Pacific.  In  the  distant 
view,  Eimeo  seems  to  be  a  mass  of  mountain  towers, 
crags  and  peaks,  rising  abruptly  to  great  elevations, 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  35 

and  in  one  lofty  summit,  resembling  a  rudely  shaped 
cone,  there  is  a  hole  opening  through,  a  few  hundred 
feet  from  the  top.  On  Tahiti,  still  loftier  summits, 
with  crowns  and  crests  and  jagged  ridges  constitute 
the  surface.  The  eye  follows  up  one  precipitious  slope 
to  plunge  at  once  one  or  two  thousand  feet  to  the 
bottom  of  another. 

"The  islands  to  the  north-westward  are  described 
as  exceeding  Tahiti  in  their  bold  features,  and  in  the 
indentations  of  their  shores,  which  form  deep  bays, 
penetrating  far  among  the  mountains ;  they  are  for 
their  size,  the  most  remarkable  in  the  Pacific.  There 
is  great  luxuriance  of  verdure  over  the  Society  Islands, 
and  o-ood  soil.     But  owlnof  to  the  mountainous  char- 

o  <-> 

acter  of  the  lands,  and  especially  the  remarkably  steep 
declivities,  but  little  of  the  surface,  comparatively,  can 
be  brought  under  cultivation.  Yet  there  are  many 
fine  valleys,  besides  the  level  areas  along  the  shores 
which  might  be  tilled  to  great  advantage.  The  sugar 
cane  and  many  tropical  fruits  are  already  grown  in 
abundance,  and  to  these  the  coffee  plant  and  other 
productions  of  the  East  Indies  might  be  added." 

TAHITI. 

Having  cargo  for  Tahiti,  it  was  our  good  fortune 
to  remain  several  days,  and  of  course  time  for  a  par- 
tial inspection  of  what  has  been  so  much  written  about. 
The  entrance  to  the  main  harbor  of  Tahiti  is  rather 
difficult  to  navigate,  and  requires  the  assistance  of 
some  ancient  weather-beaten  mariner  who  knows  every 
foot  of  the  channel  from  boyhood.  They  are  to  be 
found  among  the  natives,  who,  for  a  proper  considera- 
tion, will   place   your  vessel  at   safe  anchorage  in  the 


S6  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

inner  harbor.  The  trade  of  these  islands  with  the  out- 
side world  is  considerable,  the  exports  reaching  a  value 
of  nearly  one  million  of  dollars  annually,  with  imports 
of  as  much  more.  Coffee,  cotton  and  sugar-cane,  as 
well  as  all  other  tropical  plants,  do  well  in  the  group, 
giving  not  only  employment  to  the  natives,  but  many 
who  are  brougrht  from  other  islands  and  China.  The 
people  are  intelligent  and  kindly  disposed,  and  the 
stranger  may  revel  in  all  the  delights  of  a  tropical  cli- 
mate without  let  or  hindrance.  Missionary  schools  are 
to  be  met  with  on  nearly  all  of  the  isles,  and  the  strict 
observance  of  laws,  as  customary  in  our  own  country, 
is  enforced  by  the  Government.  Tahiti,  although  of 
wonderful  fertility,  and  better  known  to  the  world,  has 
many  rivals  in  extent  and  rich  soil ;  notably  the  islands 
of  Raitea  and  Huahine — both  of  the  Society  group- 
where  can  be  found  beautiful  valleys,  with  an  abun- 
dance of  water  and  a  luxuriant  vegetation  of  nearly  all 
the  tropical  fruits,  which  clothe  the  valleys,  hills  and 
mountain  sides  to  their  very  tops.  Much  could  be 
written  of  Tahiti  that  would  prove  interestiTig  to  the 
lovers  of  curious  traditions,  and  a  ofreat  deal  miofht  be 
said  of  Captain  Cook  and  his  voyage  to  this  island — 
sent  by  the  English  Government  to  take  observations 
of  the  transit  of  Venus.  The  shade  of  the  tamarind 
tree  planted  by  Cook  may  be  enjoyed,  and  relics  from 
the  observatory  built  by  himself  and  companions  can 
be  carried  away  in  quantities  to  suit.  But  space  will 
not  permit  many  details  in  a  subject  so  vast  as  the 
Islands  of  the  Pacific. 

TONGA,    OR    FRIENDLY    ISLANDS. 

To   the  south  and  west  of  the  Society  group  lie 
the  Tonga  or  Friendly  islands,  nearly  one  hundred  in 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  jy 

number,  and.  like  nearly  all  isles  in  this  region,  are 
formed  on  the  coral  reefs.  The  archipelago  is  divided 
into  several  groups — Tongatabu,  Namuka,  Hapai  and 
Katoo  being  the  largest  and  best  known.  The  islands 
are  very  low,  the  highest  ground  seldom  rising  above 
an  altitude  of  loo  feet.  The  products  are  similar  to 
those  already  described  ;  the  natives  are  peaceable  and 
friendly,  nearly  all  of  them  professing  Christianity. 

The  number  in  the  group  I  have  placed  at  one 
hundred  ;  some  authorities  state  as  hifjfh  as  one  hun- 
dred  and  fifty ;.  with  a  total  landed  area  of  but  looo 
square  miles.  They  were  discovered  by  Tasman  in 
1643,  ^"^^  visited  by  Captain  Cook  many  years  after- 
ward, who  gave  them  the  name  they  bear  to-day. 

Of  the  inhabitants,  it  is  said  that  they  "are  intel- 
lectually, perhaps,  the  most  advanced  of  the  Polynesian 
race,  and  exercise  an  influence  over  distant  neighbors, 
especially  in  Fiji,  quite  out  of  proportion  to  their 
numbers,  which  do  not  exceed  twenty  or  twenty-five 
thousand.  Their  conquests  have  extended  as  far  as 
Nine,  or  Savage  Island,  200  miles  to  the  east,  and  to 
various  other  Islands  to  the  north.  In  Cook's  time. 
Ponlaho,  the  principal  chief,  considered  Samoa  to  be 
within  his  dominions.  This  pre-eminence  may,  per- 
haps, be  due  to  an  early  infusion  of  Fijian  blood. 
Pritchard  [Polynesian  Reminiscences)  observed  such 
crosses  to  be  always  more  vigorous  than  the  pure 
races  in  these  islands,  and  this  influence  seems  also 
traceable  in  the  Tongan  dialect,  and  appears  to  have 
been  partially  transmitted  thence  to  the  Samoan.  Va- 
rious customs,  traditions  and  names  of  places  point  to 
a  former  relation  with  Fiji,  but  Fijian  influence  in 
Tonga  is  insignificant,  compared  with  that  of  Tonga  in 
Fiji.     Their  prior  conversion  to  Christianity  gave  the 


j8  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

people  material  as  well  as  moral  advantag-es  over  their 
neighbors,  and  King-  George,  a  very-  remarkable  man, 
and  far  in  advance  of  his  people,  has,  during  a  long 
reign,  made  the  most  of  these. 

"Agriculture,  which  is  well  understood,  is  the 
chief  industry.  They  are  bold  and  skillful  sailors  and 
fishermen  ;  other  trades,  as  boat  and  house  building, 
carving,  cooking,  net  and  mat  making,  are  usually 
hereditary.  Their  houses  are  slightly  built,  but  the 
surrounding  ground  and  roads  are  laid  out  with  great 
care  and  taste. 

"There  are  some  ancient  stone  remains  here,  as 
in  the  Caroline  Islands,  burial  places  (feitoka)  built 
with  great  blocks,  and  a  remarkable  monument  consist- 
ing of  two  large  blocks  with  a  transverse  one,  contain- 
ing a  circular  basin  in  the  centre. 

"The  chief  articles  of  export  are  cocoanut-oil  and 
copra,  a  little  sugar,  cotton  and  coffee,  the  cultivation 
of  which  is  encouraged  by  the  king,  and  fresh  provis- 
ions for  ships,  as  yams,  pigs  and  poultry.  The  chiel 
imports  are  cloth,  cotton  prints,  hardware,  mirrors, 
etc. 

HERVEY    OR    COOK's    ISLANDS- 

A  little  to  the  north  and  east  of  the  Tono-as  are 
the  Hervey  or  Cook's  Islands  ;  Mangaia,  Raratonga, 
Autaluke  and  Hervey  being  the  largest.  They  are 
all  of  consicierable  commercial  value,  not  only  on  ac- 
count of  their  agricultural  products,  but  for  the  great 
number  of  turtles  and  quantity  of  beche  de  mer  taken 
in  this  grou}).  Their  products  are  coffee,  cotton, 
sugar,  tobacco,  cocoanuts,  oil,  fungus,  tomano  wood 
and  bananas.  Nearly  all  the  natives  of  this  group 
can  read  and  write,  and  profess  the  Protestant  religion. 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  jp 

A  great  deal  of  time  and  money  has  been  spent  in 
this  region,  educating  and  reclaiming  the  heathen. 
It  is  lamentable  though  that  in  adopting  our  more 
civilized  manners  and  habits,  that  the  good  and  bad 
of  our  civilization  could  not  have  been  separated. 
Many  of  the  natives  here,  as  well  as  among  other 
groups  of  the  Pacific,  seem  to  take  to  the  bad  nat- 
urally, and  in  this  particular  locality  it  resulted  in 
almost  decimating  the  population. 

Raratonga  stands  high  above  the  sea  level,  nearly 
3,000  feet,  and  the  rich  tropical  vegetation  covers  the 
mountain  sides  clear  to  their  summits.  Streams  of 
pure  water  flow  through  its  valleys  of  rich  alluvial 
soil,  and  highly  cultivated  plantations  are  to  be  met  with 
on  every  hand.  The  inhabitants  offer  a  pleasing  con- 
trast to  some  already  cited,  being  a  happy,  peaceful 
and  industrious  race,  in  a  comparatively  advanced 
state  of  civilization. 

FIJI    ISLANDS. 

Nearly  due  west  from  Cook's  Islands  we  come  to 
the  great  group  of  Viti,  popularly  known  as  the  Fijis. 
They  are  250  in  number,  with  an  area  of  some  7,400 
square  miles,  and  population  of  about  1 20,000.  It  is 
said  that  "a  few  islands  in  the  northeast  of  the  group 
were  first  seen  by  Tasman  in  1643.  The  southern- 
most of  the  group.  Turtle  Island,  was  discovered  by 
Cook  in  1773.  Bligh  visited  them  in  1789,  and  Cap- 
tain Wilson,  o{  t\\G  Dicff,  in  1797.  In  1827  D'Urville, 
in  the  Astrolabe,  surveyed  them  much  more  accurately, 
but  the  first  thorough  survey  was  that  of  the  United 
States  Exploring  Expedition  in  1840."  The  group 
was  annexed  by  Great  Britain  in  1874,  and  if  not 
justly  territory   of  that  country,  is   practically  under 


40  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

the  protectorate  of  England  to-day.  Situated  in  both 
longitudes,  that  is  lying  either  side  of  the  meridian  of 
Greenwich,  and  between  latitudes  1 5  deg.  42  min.  and 
19  deg.  48  min.  south,  in  the  track  of  much  of  our  com- 
mercial trade  with  Australia  and  islands  further  west,  the 
Fijis  are  rapidly  growing  in  commercial  importance. 
They  offer  a  curious  study  of  the  past  and  present. 
At  one  time,  and  that,  too,  within  the  memory  of  the 
living,  the  Fijis  were  inhabited  by  a  race  of  fierce  and 
warlike  man-eaters,  whose  victims  were  roasted  and 
eaten,  after  undergoing  all  the  hideous  rites  and 
tortures  that  their  savage  natures  could  suggest. 
Now  the  abode  of  peace  and  plenty,  with  churches, 
schools  and  manufactures  throughout  the  land.  If  I 
mistake  not,  there  are  at  present  1,400  schools  and 
200  churches  among  these  islands. 

The  rapid  advance  made  by  the  natives  in  civ- 
ilization, in  the  arts  and  agriculture  has  made  of  these 
once  inhospitable  shores  a  pleasant  home  and  resort 
for  people  of  all  nations. 

The  main  islands  are  known  as  Viti  Lavu,  Van- 
nua  Lavu,  Moala,  Kiro,  Lotia,  Vunie,  Kandavau, 
Vatata,  Valava  Ovalau,  Lakeruba,  Vanua  and  Yasawa. 
Mr.  Consul  March,  in  his  report  speaking  of  the 
capabilities  of  Fiji,  says:  "The  productions  and  re- 
sources of  Fiji  have  been  described  in  previous  re- 
ports ;  it  is  sufficient,  therefore,  to  state  that  these 
islands,  rich  and  fertile,  yield  an  almost  endless  variety 
of  vegetable  treasures.  They  abound  in  edible  roots, 
medical  plants,  scents  and  perfumes,  and  timber  of 
various  descriptions ;  whilst  sugar,  coffee  and  to- 
bacco grow  most  luxuriantly,  and  if  cultivated,  would, 
I  think,  prove  as  remunerative  as  cotton." 

The  group,  generally  speaking,  may  be   of  vol- 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  X>CEAN  41 

canic  origin,  many  evidences  of  igneous  creation  pre- 
vailing through  most  of  the  islands,  with  traces  of 
extinct  craters,  whose  ancient  fires  were  probably 
quenched  by  the  waters  of  the  surrounding  seas. 
On  some,  traces  of  the  sedimentary  formations  are 
met  with,  while  on  others  coral  is  found,  a  thousand 
feet  above  the  ocean  level,  forced  up  from  the  depths 
of  the  sea.  Taken  in  all,  the  physical  configuration 
is  hilly  and  mountainous,  some  of  the  crests  rising 
to  a  height  of  four  or  five  thousand  feet.  Blessed 
with  an  even  temperature  and  an  abundant  rainfall, 
the  valleys  and  slopes  covered  with  verdure  and 
forests  in  all  stages  of  bloom  and  growth,  a  view  of 
the  group  from  the  sea  is  extremely  pleasing  to  the 
eye.  Small  streams  flow  through  the  valleys,  some 
of  them  reaching  the  dignity  of  navigable  rivers,  with 
valuable  agricultural  lands  to  be  found  on  the  low- 
lands along-  their  banks,  that  a  little  skill  and  enerofv. 
surely  arriving  with  the  strangers  making  their  homes 
in  the  group,  will  develop  Into  agricultural  wealth. 
Then  rice,  sugar,  coffee  and  cotton  will  vie  with  the 
natural  products,  the  cocoanut,  bread-fruit,  banana, 
lemon  and  orange. 

NEW    HEBRIDES    GROUP. 

Lying  farther  west  and  a  little  to  the  south  of  the 
Fijis,  are  the  New  Hebrides  Islands,  twelve  in  number, 
the  largest  and  best  known  being  named  Aneteum, 
Tana,  Vate,  Api,  Aurora,  Whitsun  and  Espiritu  Santo. 
The  last  named,  the  largest  of  the  group,  is  about  65 
miles  long  by  35  wide.  Inhabiting  most  of  the  islands 
may  be  found  a  people  the  most  treacherous  and  quar- 
relsome  in   the   whole  Pacific.     Lieut.  Meade,   R.  N., 


42  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

who  visited  there  in  1865,  in  describing  Tana,  and 
which  may  be  accepted  as  about  their  present  condi- 
tion, says :  "Tana  is  about  25  miles  long  by  12  broad, 
the  population  being  between  fifteen  and  twenty  thou- 
sand. But  since  the  introduction  of  European  diseases 
and  weapons,  there  has  been  a  steady  decrease.  In 
1 86 1  a  third  of  the  people  died  of  the  measles.  The 
state  of  morals  is  extremely  low ;  the  natives  assert 
that  the  present  excessive  licentiousness  was  introduced 
by  the  whites,  who  formerly  resided  on  the  island. 
The  chiefs  endeavor  to  get  drunk  every  night  on  kava. 
The  women  do  all  the  work  ;  the  men  all  the  fi^htine, 
which  is  their  constant  employment.  Cannibalism  is 
the  custom  all  over  the  island."  In  1842  the  bark 
Rose,  from  Nantucket,  eno-ao-ed  in  whalinor  in  these 
latitudes,  took  as  passengers  twelve  native  mission- 
aries, who  had  been  educated  and  raised  in  Christianity 
on  some  of  the  more  civilized  groups.  These  mission- 
aries were  sent  to  Tana  as  an  experiment,  and  in  the 
hope  of  retrieving  a  fallen  race.  Arriving  off  the  island, 
a  whale-boat  was  lowered  and  manned  with  a  well- 
armed  crew,  in  addition  to  the  twelve  Christian  work- 
ers. The  crew  were  cautioned  as  to  the  treachery  and 
brutality  of  the  natives,  and  on  no  account  to  make  a 
landing  longer  than  just  necessary  to  place  the  mission- 
aries ashore.  On  arriving:-  at  the  beach,  the  natives 
swarmed  to  the  boat  and  assisted  the  landino-  of  the 
religious  workers  with  every  show  of  kindness  and 
affection.  Actinij  under  strict  orders,  the  crew  of  the 
whale-boat  immediately  put  back  for  the  ship,  and  were 
not  three  hundred  yards  from  the  beach  when  the  na- 
tives fell  upon  the  missionaries,  killing  them  all  in  the 
most  barbarous  manner,  and  in  full  view  of  the  occu- 
pants of  the  boat. 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  43 

LOYALTY    ISLANDS. 

South  and  westerly  from  the  New  Hebrides  we 
come  to  the  Loyalty  Islands,  said  to  have  been  dis- 
covered by  Captain  Cook  in  1774.  The  group  is 
"about  60  miles  east  of  New  Caledonia,  consisting-  of 
Uvea  or  Uea  (the  northernmost),  Lifu,  Toka,  and  sev- 
eral small  islands,  and  Mare  or  Neugone.  They  are 
coral  islands,  of  comparatively  recent  elevation,  and  in 
no  place  rise  more  than  250  feet  above  the'  sea.  Lifu, 
the  largest,  is  about  50  miles  in  length  by  25  in  breadth. 
Enough  of  its  rocky  surface  is  covered  with  a  thin 
coating  of  soil  to  enable  the  natives  to  grow  yams, 
taro,  bananas,  etc.,  for  their  support ;  cotton  thrives 
well,  and  has  even  been  exported  in  small  quantities, 
but  there  is  no  space  available  for  its  cultivation  on 
any  considerable  scale.  Fresh  water,  rising  and  falling 
with  the  tide,  is  found  in  certain  large  caverns,  and,  in 
fact,  by  sinking  to  the  sea-level,  a  supply  may  be  ob- 
tained in  any  part  of  the  island.  The  population,  about 
seven  thousand,  is  on  the  decrease.  The  island  called 
Neugone  by  the  natives,  and  Mare  by  the  inhabitants 
of  the  Isle  of  Pines,  is  about  eighty  miles  in  circumfer- 
ence, and  contains  about  six  thousand  souls.  Uvea, 
the  most  recent  part  of  the  group,  consists  of  a  circle 
of  about  twenty  islets,  inclosing  a  lagoon  twenty  miles 
in  width  ;  the  largest  is  about  thirty  miles  in  length, 
and  in  some  places  three  miles  wide,  and  the  next  lar- 
gest is  about  twelve  miles  in  length.  The  inhabitants, 
numbering  about  twenty-five  hundred,  export  consid- 
erable quantities  of  cocoanut-oil.  The  Loyalty  Island- 
ers are  classed  as  Melanesian  ;  the  several  islands  have 
each  its  separate  language,  and  in  Uvea  the  one  tribe 
uses  a  Samoan,  and  the  other  a  New  Hebridean  form 


44  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

of  speech.  Captain  Cook  passed  to  the  east  of  New 
Caledonia  without  observing  the  Loyalty  group,  but  it 
was  discovered  soon  afterwards,  and  Dumont  D'Ur- 
ville  laid  down  the  several  islands  in  his  chart.  For 
many  years  after  their  discovery  the  natives  had  a  bad 
repute  as  dangerous  cannibals.  Christianity  was  in-, 
troduced  into  Mare  by  native  teachers  from  Rarotonga 
and  Samoa  ;  missionaries  were  settled  by  the  London 
Missionary  Society  at  Mare  in  1854,  at  Lifu  in  1859, 
and  at  Uvea  in  1865.  Roman  Catholic  missionaries 
also  arrived  from  New  Caledonia,  and  in  1864  the 
French,  considering  the  islands  a  dependency  of  that 
colony,  formally  instituted  a  commandant." 

(Encyclo.  Brit.,  vol.  15;   Gill:  Gems  from  the  Coral  Islands,  1871 ; 
Macfarlane :  Story  of  the  Lifu  Mission,  1873.) 


NEW     CALEDONIA. 

New  Caledonia  with  an  area  of  6,000  square  miles 
and  a  population  of  nearly  60,000,  was  discovered  in 
1774  by  Captain  Cook.  One  of  the  most  beautiful 
and  valuable  islands  in  the  South  Pacific,  has  been 
rendered  almost  valueless,  by  its  appropriation  in  1853 
by  the  French,  and  since  used  by  that  government  as 
a  convict  settlement.  It  differs  materially  from  the 
coral  formations  underlying  many  of  the  Pacific  isles, 
springing  evidently  from  the  older  geological  periods. 
It  is  one  confused  mass  of  rocks,  hills  and  mountains, 
corrugated  with  beautiful  valleys  and  running  streams. 
The  hills  and  mountains  are  covered  with  forests  of 
fine  timber,  while  an  abundant  natural  growth  of 
nearly  all  of  the  tropical  fruits,  afford  easy  sustenance 
to    the    not  over  industrious  natives.      Noumea   the 


OF   THE  PACIFIC   OCEAN  45 

capital  is  in  the  southern  portion,  and  has  a  fine 
harbor,  that  should  be  used  for  anything,  but  the  wants 
of  the  scapegraces  of  France.  Copper,  nickle  and 
cobalt  are  found  in  paying  quantities,  and  ver)^  lately 
some  important  discoveries  of  gold  have  been  made. 


46  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 


CHAPTER  IV. 


ISI^AISfDS 


The  turf  looks  green  where  the  breakers  rolled ; 
O'er  the  whirlpool  ripens  the  rind  of  gold ; 
The  sea-snatched  isle  is  the  home  of  men, 
And  mountains  exult  where  the  wave  hath  been. 

Lydia  H.  Sigourney. 

MARSHALL    ISLANDS.    . 

THE  Marshall  Archipelago,  consists  of  two  nearly 
parallel  chains  of  Atolls,  from  loo  to  300  miles 
apart,  the  west  known  as  Ralik,  the  east  as  Radek 
chains.  They  are  between  4  deg.  3omin.  and  12  deg. 
N.,  and  between  165  deg.  15  min.  and  172  deg.  15 
min.  E.,  and  run  N.  N.  W.  and  S.  S.  E.  They  were 
discovered  by  Alonzo  de  Saavedra,  in  1529,  who 
observing  the  fine  tatooing  of  the  natives,  (the  first 
allusion  to  that  practice  in  the  Pacific,)  called  them 
Los  Pintados. 

Among  modern  voyagers,  Wallis  first  visited  them 
in  1767.  Captains  Marshall  and  Gilbert  reached  them 
in  1788,  and  Kotzebue  in  1816,  explored  them  more 
thoroughly.  The  east  group  contains  fifteen  or  six- 
teen atolls,  which  range  from  two  to  fifty  miles  in  cir- 
cumference. 

There  is  a  curious  tradition  on  the  Liban  island,  of 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  4-, 

the   Darwinian   fact,   that  the    atoll,  once    formed    the 
barrier  reef  of  an  island  now  sunk  beneath  the  lagoon. 


GILBERT   ISLANDS. 

The  Gilbert  Archipelago,  discovered  by  Com. 
Byron  in  1765,  is  geographically,  a  south  continuation 
of  the  Marshalls,  the  channel  separating  them  being 
about  150  miles  wide. 

Several  of  the  islands  have  good  anchorages 
inside  of  the  lagoons,  with  entrances  on  the  lee  side. 
On  some  the  lee  or  west  reef  is  wanting-,  owinor  to  the 
abrading  force  of  the  west  storms.  During  these, 
large  trees,  are  washed  ashore,  their  roots  containing 
pieces  of  fine  basalt,  of  which  implements  are  made. 
There  is  a  larger  proportion  of  land  to  submerged 
reef  and  lagoon  than  in  the  Marshalls ;  the  land  some- 
times rising  twenty  feet  above  the  sea,  whereas  in  the 
Marshalls  the  averag-e  level  of  the  reef  rocks  above  the 
surface  is  less  than  one  foot;  but,  though  the  supply 
of  fresh  water  is  great,  in  fact  enough  for  the  luxury  of 
a  bath,  the  soil,  especially  in  the  south,  is  much  less 
productive ;  yet  the  population  is  very  dense.  The 
usually  scattered  houses  are  replaced  by*  compact  rows 
of  roofs,  shaded  by  the  cocoa  palm,  and,  each  with  its 
boat  shed  below,  line  the  shore. 

Their  number  may  be  set  down  at  sixteen,  lying  on 
both  sides  of  the  equator  between  3  deg.  20  min.  N., 
and  2  deg.  40  min.  S.  latitude,  and  172  deg.  30  min., 
and  177  deg.  15  min.  E.  longitudes,  with  a  landed 
area  of  800  square  miles  and  a  population  of  25,000. 

These  atolls  may  contain  a  greater  number  of 
people  than  mentioned,  as  the  population  seems  very 
dense.     This    is   accounted  for  by  the  small  width  of 


4S  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

the  atolls,  ranging  from  a  few  hundred  yards  wide 
only,  in  some  places,  to  several  miles  in  others,  and 
the  habit  of  the  natives  of  flockino-  or  swarmine  from 
one  island  to  another,  or  to  particular  localities  on  one 
island.  This  occurs  sometimes  twice  in  a  year,  and 
arises  from  the  fact  that  nature,  in  her  products,  is  not 
always  equally  prolific;  and  the  natives  migrate  from 
point  to  point,  for  the  means  of  sustenance. 

AS    MARINERS. 

The  Marshall  islanders  are  the  best  and  most 
skillful  navigators  in  the  Pacific.  Their  voyages, 
sometimes  of  many  months'  duration,  in  great  canoes, 
sailing  with  outriggers  to  windward,  well  provisioned 
and  depending  on  the  skies  for  fresh  water,  help  to 
show  how  the  Pacific  was  colonized.  They  have  a 
sort  of  chart,  inedc,  of  small  sticks  tied  toofether, 
representing  the  position  of  islands  and  the  direction 
of  the  winds  and  currents.  They  have  also  wonderful 
weapons,  the  blades  of  which  are  edged  with  sharks' 
teeth,  and  a  defensive  armor  of  braided  sennit,  also 
peculiar  to  the  islands.  In  hollowing  out  their  canoes 
they  use  a  large  adze,  made  from  the  Tradacue  gigas, 
formerly  used  in  the  Carolines,  probably  by  the  older 
builder  race. 

LANGUAGES    OF    MICRONESIA. 

The  languages  of  Micronesia,  though  gramat- 
ically  alike,  differ  widely  in  their  vocabularies.  The 
religious  myths  are  identifiable  with  the  Polynesian ; 
but  a  belief  in  the  gods  proper  is  overshadowed 
by  a  general  deification  of  ancestors,  who  are  sup- 
posed  from   time   to  time  to  occupy  certain   blocks  ot 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  49 

coral,  set  up  near  the  family  dwelling,  and  surrounded 
by  circles  of  smaller  ones.  These  stones  are  an- 
nointed  with  oil  and  worshiped  with  prayer  and 
offerings,  and  are  also  used  for  purposes  of  divining-, 
in  which,  and  -in  various  omens,  there  is  a  general 
belief.  In  the  Marshall  group,  in  place  of  these 
stones,  certain  palm-trees  are  similarly  enclosed. 
The  spirits,  also,  are  believed  to  inhabit  the  forms  of 
certain  birds  or  fishes,  which  are  tabu,  as  food  to  the 
family ;  but  they  will  help  to  catch  these  for  others. 
All  this  closely  recalls  the  Kauzuari,  or  the  ancestral 
imaofes  of  New  Guinea. 

FLORA    AND    FAUNA. 

The  fiora  of  the  Gilbert  and  Marshall  groups  is 
of  the  usual  oceanic  character,  with  close  Indo-Malay 
affinities.  It  is  much  poorer  than  that  of  the  Caro- 
lines, with  their  Mollucca  and  Philippine  elements,  and 
this  again  is  surpassed  by  that  of  the  Ladrones.  In 
the  Gilberts,  the  scattered  woods  of  the  cocoanut  and 
pandanus  have  little  undergrowth,  while  the  South 
Marshalls  being  within  the  belt  of  constant  precipita- 
tion, have  a  dense  growth  of  low  trees  and  shrubs, 
with  here  and  there  a  tropical  luxuriance  unusual  in 
atolls. 

■  The  pandanus  grows  wild  and  profusely,  and  is 
of  exceptional  importance,  being  the  chief  staple 
food,  so  that  the  cocoanut,  which  however  flourishes 
chiefly  in  the  Gilberts,  is  used  mainly  to  produce  oil 
for  exportation.  The  bread-fruit  grows  chiefly  in  the 
South  Marshalls.  The  t^ro  aruvi  coi^difoliuin  and 
others  is  cultivated  laboriously,  deep  trenches  being 
cut  in  the  solid  rock  for  its  cultivation.     Various  vee- 


so  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

etables  grow  on  soil  Imported  for  the  purpose.  Ma- 
rine plants  are  rare. 

The  fauna,  Hke  the  flora,  becomes  poorer  east- 
ward, birds  being  more  numerous  on  the  high  islands 
than  on  the  atolls,  where  the  few  are*  chiefly  aquatic. 
On  Bonabe,  or  Ponape,  out  of  twenty-nine  species 
eleven  are  sea-birds,  and  of  the  remaining  eighteen, 
eleven  are  peculiar  to  the  islands.  From  the  Pelew 
Islands  fifty-six  species  are  recorded  (twelve  peculiar), 
and  from  the  neighboring  Makenzie  group  twenty  (six 
peculiar).  Yet  curiously  no  species  is  recorded  to 
those  two  groups,  and  peculiar  to  them.  The  com- 
mon fowl  Is  found  everywhere,  wild  or  tame,  and  In 
some  places  is  kept  for  Its  feathers  only.  The  rat  and 
paunopcs  are  the  only  indigenous  land  mammals.  The 
Indian  crocodile  Is  found  as  far  west  as  the  Pelews. 
There  are  five  or  six  species  of  lizards,  including  a 
gecka  and  abliphercos.  Insects  are  numerous,  but  of 
few  kinds.  Scorpions  and  centipedes  are  common, 
but  are  said  to  be  harmless. 

The  houses  of  the  Gilberts  and  Marshalls  (much 
less  elaborate  than  those  in  the  Carolines)  consist 
merely  of  a  thatched  roof,  resting  on  posts,  or  blocks 
of  coral,  about  three  feet  high,  with  floors  at  that 
level,  which  are  reached  from  an  opening  In  the 
center.  On  these  the  principal  people  sleep,  also 
serving  as  a  store-house,  inaccessible  to  rats,  which 
infest  all  the  islands. 

(Findlay's  N.  Pacific  ;  Hale's  Etli.  and  Piii.  of  Wilke's  U.  S.  Ex. 
Exped.;  Menicke's  Die  Inseln  des  Stellen  Oceans;  Proc.  Zool.  Soc, 
1872,  1877,  Ency.  Brit.,  vol.  16.) 

MICRONESIA. 

The  Islands  of  Micronesia  He  along  the  Equator 
and  a  little  west  of  the  meridian  on  which  the  world's 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  51 

day  begins.  The  Micronesian  Christians  have  finished 
the  Sabbath  worship,  and  fallen  asleep  under  the  shel- 
ter of  their  thatched  cottages  beneath  the  cocoanut 
trees,  before  Christians  in  America  have  beeun  the 
services  of  the  day. 

Micronesia  is  a  subdivision  of  Polynesia,  the  gen- 
eric name  for  the  myriad  islands  scattered  over  the 
broad  Pacific  Ocean.  It  is  composed  of  four  groups — 
the  Gilbert  or  Kingsmill  Islands,  which  lie  on  both 
sides  of  the  Equator  and  a  little  beyond  the  i8oth  me- 
ridian ;  the  Marshall  or  Mulgrave  Islands,  subdivided 
into  the  Radac  or  Ralack  Chains  ;  and  the  Caroline 
and  Ladrone  Islands.  The  three  former  groups  only 
are  missionary  ground,  as  the  Ladrone  Islands  are  a 
Spanish  penal  colony,  and  the  native  race  is  extinct. 

The  Islands  of  Micronesia  are  in  the  great  coral 
belt ;  the  Gilbert  and  Marshall  groups  being  exclu- 
sively of  coral  formation,  and  lie  in  the  Caroline  archi- 
pelago, which  stretches  over  the  sea  a  distance  of  two 
thousand  miles  from  east  to  west.  Many  of  the  atolls 
or  coral  islands  enclose  lagroons  from  ten  to  fifteen 
miles  broad,  and  from  twenty  to  thirty  miles  long. 

The  climate  of  Micronesia  is  a  never-ending  sum- 
mer, never  as  hot  as  the  hottest  summer  days  of  Amer- 
ica, and  never  cold  enough  to  cause  chilliness.  The 
greatest  range  of  the  thermometer  experienced  during 
a  residence  of  several  years  on  Ponape,  one  of  the 
Caroline  group,  was  thirteen  degrees — from  74  deg. 
to  87  deg.  in  the  shade.  On  some  of  the  islands  the 
rainfall  is  excessive ;  on  others,  but  moderate. 

The  Islands  of  Polynesia  are  inhabited  by  two 
races  of  people — brown  and  black.  The  brown  are 
found  on  the  Sandwich  Islands,  the  Marquesas,  the 
Society  and  the  Samoan  groups,  the  Hervey  and  New 


52  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

Zealand.  To  this  race  belong  the  inhabitants  of  Mic- 
ronesia. The  Melanesians — found  on  the  Fiji  Islands. 
New  Caledonia,  the  New  Hebrides,  the  Loyalty  and 
Solomon  groups.  New  Britain  and  New  Guinea — are 
akin  to  the  African,  having  the  woolly  hair  and  physi- 
ognomy of  the  negro  races.  They  are  lower  down  in 
the  scale  of  civilization  than  their  brown  neighbors, 
beingf,  as  a  rule,  cannibals — fierce,  warlike,  treacherous 
and  intractable.  It  was  among  these  people  that  John 
Williams,  Bishop  Pattison,  the  Gordons  and  other  mis- 
sionaries lost  their  lives.  But,  degraded  as  they  are, 
the  entire  history  of  Christian  missions  can  show  no 
greater  transformation  than  has  taken  place  in  the  Fiji 
Islands,  as  the  result  of  English  Wesleyan  missions. 

The  islands  inhabited  by  the  black  Polynesians 
enter  like  a  wedge  among  those  inhabited  by  the  brown 
race,  the  apex  being  the  Fiji  Islands.  The  accepted 
theory,  until  recently,  was  that  the  brown  Polynesians 
belong  to  the  IMalay  race.  Later  investigations  by 
Judge  Fornander,  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands,  and  certain 
German  scholars,  render  it  probable  that  they  may  be 
a  branch  of  the  Caucasian  race.  It  is  thought  that  by 
means  of  their  languages,  traditions  and  mythologies, 
the  Polynesians  can  be  traced  back  from  their  present 
abode,  step  by  step,  through  the  island  groups  of  the 
Pacific  and  Indian  Oceans,  to  the  Indian  Peninsula,  and 
onward  to  the  centre  table-lands  of  Asia,  whence  the 
Caucasian  races,  in  the  beginning  of  history,  emigrated 
westward  and  southward.  In  those  groups  in  which 
the  different  islands  are  near  enough  to  allow  of  com- 
munication, even  though  comparatively  infrequent, 
there  is  usually  a  common  language  ;  where  widely 
separated,  different  languages  have  been  developed. 
Most  of  the  various  dialects  abound  in  vowel  sounds. 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  jj 

two  consonants  rarely  coming  together  in  the  middle 
of  a  word,  and  all  words  ending  in  vowels. 

RELIGION. 

Reliofioiis  beliefs  and  observances  varied  with 
different  groups,  yet  had  certain  characteristics  in 
common.  The  people  were  not  idolaters  ;  they  be- 
lieved in  the  existence  of  spiritual  beings,  whose  power 
they  feared,  and  whose  anger  they  sought  in  many 
ways  to  avert.  But  we  never  found  any  conception  of 
a  supreme  Deity,  or  a  belief  in  one  spirit  surpassing  all 
others  in  power.  They  believed  that  the  spirit  of  man 
survived  his  death,  and  lived  on  in  one  of  two  places 
or  states,  one  more  desirable  than  the  other,  but  with 
no  difference  based  on  clearly  defined  desert  or  moral 
character.  On  some  of  the  islands  there  was  a  reo-u- 
lar  priesthood,  with  rites  of  worship;  on  others,  little, 
more  than  certain  superstitious  observances.  They 
prayed  to  spirits,  and  offered  gifts  and  oblations. 
Their  traditions  and  mythologies  were  usually  only  a 
confused  jumble,  and  their  religious  beliefs  seemed  to 
have  little  influence  on  their  character. 

(Rev.  Robert  W.  Logan,  Congregational  Missionary  to  Micronesia.) 
PHCENIX,    ELLIS,    UNION  AND    KERMADEC    GROUPS. 

To  the  east  of  the  Marshalls,  between  latitudes 
2  deg.  and  5  deg.  S.,  and  longitudes  170  deg.  and  176 
deg.  W.,  are  the  Phoenix,  Swallow,  Gardner,  Ender- 
berg,  Sidney,  Hull,  Birul,  Arthur,  Wilkes,  and  some 
smaller  islets  and  atolls,  sometimes  known  as  the 
Phoenix  Group. 

Like  many,   they  are  now  of  no   special  import- 


5^  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

ance,  in  size  or  products.  They  but  await  the  occupa- 
tion and  development  of  the  more  civiHzed  races,  to 
render  them  of  great  value. 

These  islands,  atolls,  and  islets  although  some- 
thino-  over  a  hundred  in  number,  are  so  similar  in 
nearly  every  respect  to  the  Marshall  and  Gilbert 
groups,  that  a  description  would  be  but  a  repetition  of 
nearly  all  that  has  been  written  of  the  latter  islands. 

Another  small  group  that  might  be  placed  under 
this  head,  if  we  except  climatic  and  geographic  differ- 
ences are  the  Kermadec  islands.  Lying  to  the  north 
and  east  of  New  Zealand,  between  latitudes  30  deg. 
and  -i^i  deg.  S.,  and  about  177  deg.  and  179  degrees 
W.  longitude,  might  prove  of  great  value,  by  occupa- 
tion. Sunday,  Macauley  and  Curtis  islands  are  the 
principal  in  this  little  cluster. 

NAVIGATOR     (sAMOA)    ISLANDS. 

Samoa,  the  native  name  of  the  Navigator  group, 
comprises  ten  islands  that  are  inhabited,-  of  of  any 
note,  with  some  smaller  islets,  of  no  present  interest. 

Savaii,  Opolu,  Tutuila,  Mauono,  Apolima,  Mauna, 
Olosenga  and  Of'u  are  the  principal,  for  a  better  idea 
and  description  of  which  I  have  had  to  refer  to  Mr.  Reed 
of  the  Australian  Customs,  and  the  United  States 
Exploring  Expedition,  under  Commodore  Wilkes,  who 
surveyed  them  in  1839. 

PHYSICAL    FEATURES. 

They  are  located  between  latitudes  12  deg.  53 
min.  and  15  deg.  57  min.  south,  and  between  longi- 
tudes   168   dec^.    6  min.    and    178   deg.  21    min.  west. 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  SJ) 

with  an  area  I  have  set  down  at  1,650  square  miles 
(akhough  some  authorities  do  not  allow  over  1,100 
to  1,200  square  miles),  with  a  total  population  of 
35,000.  The  modern  name  of  the  group  was  given 
to  them  by  the  French  navigator,  Bougainville,  who 
visited  them  in  1768.  They  were  visited,  also,  in 
after  years  by  the  ill-fated  la  Perouse,  in  1787,  who  had 
a  battle  with  the  natives,  losing  a  good  many  men  in 
the  conflict. 

The  islands  are  evidently  of  volcanic  origin,  but 
no  traces  of  active  eruptions  are  found  at  present. 
In  1867  a  curious  submarine  convulsion  took  place  in 
the  strait  between  the  islands  of  Mauna  and  Olosenga. 
The  eruption  lasted  for  about  two  weeks,  ejecting 
mud,  sand  and  water  in  large  volumes  to  a  great 
height.  After  the  convulsion,  which  in  no  way  dis- 
turbed the  adjoining  islands,  the  sea  flowed  peacefully 
over  the  volcanoes'  watery  tomb.  Soundings  taken 
at  the  time  showed  no  apparent  variation  from  the 
usual  depth  of  water  in  the  strait. 

The  people  are  among  the  straight-haired  races 
of  the  South  Sea.  With  a  fertile  soil,  blessed  with 
an  abundant  rainfall,  and  schools  and  churches  in 
every  village,  the  group  may  safely  be  classed  among 
the  garden-spots  of  the  Pacific. 

Savaii  is  the  most  western  island  of  the  Samoan 
group,  and  is  also  the  largest,  being  forty  miles  in 
length  and  twenty  In  breadth.  It  is  not,  however,  as 
populous  or  as  important  as  some  of  the  others.  It 
differs  from  any  of  the  others  in  appearance,  for  its 
shore  is  low,  and  the  ascent  thence  to  the  center  is 
gradual,  except  where  the  cones  of  a  few  extinct 
craters  are  seen.  In  the  middle  of  the  island  a  peak 
rises,   which  is  almost  continually  enveloped   in   the 


56  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

clouds,  and  is  the  highest  land  in  the  group.  On 
account  of  these  clouds  angles  could  not  be  taken 
for  determining  its  height  accurately,  but  it  certainly 
exceeds  4,000  feet. 

Another  marked  difference  between  Savaii  and 
the  other  larger  islands  is  the  want  of  any  permanent 
streams,  a  circumstance  which  may  be  explained,  not- 
withstanding the  frequency  of  rains,  by  the  porous 
nature  of  the  rock  (vesicular  lava),  of  which  it  is 
chiefly  composed.  Water,  however,  gushes  out  near 
the  shore  in  copious  springs,  and  when  heavy  and 
continued  rains  have  occurred,  streams  are  formed  in 
the  ravines,  but  these  soon  disappear  after  the  rains 
have  ceased. 

The  coral  reef  attached  to  the  island  is  inter- 
rupted to  the  south  and  west,  where  the  surf  beats 
full  upon  the  rocky  shore.  There  are  in  consequence 
but  few  places  where  boats  <Zan  land,  and  only  one 
harbor  for  ships,  that  of  Mataatua ;  even  this  is 
unsafe  from  November  to  February,  when  the  north- 
westerly gales  prevail.  The  soil  is  fertile,  and  was 
composed  in  every  part  of  the  island  that  was  visited, 
of  decomposed  volcanic  rock  and  vegetable  mold. 
Upolu  is  ten  miles  to  the  eastward  of  Savaii,  and  is 
next  in  size.  It  is  about  forty  miles  long  and  thirteen 
broad.  It  has  a  main  ridge  extending  east  and  west, 
broken  here  and  there  into  sharp  peaks  and  hum- 
mocks. From  this  main  ridge  a  number  of  smaller 
ridges  and  broad  gradual  slopes  run  down  to  a  low 
shore  encircled  by  a  coral  reef,  interrupted  here  and 
there  by  channels  which^form  the  entrances  to  safe  and 
convenient  anchorages  for  small  vessels.  At  Apia 
the  reef  extends  across  a  good-sized  bay,  and  forms 
a  safe  and  commodious   harbor  for  large  ships,  with 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  ^7 

an  entrance  through  a  deep  and  clear  channel  fowned 
by  a  break  in  the  reef. 

Between  Savaii  and  Opulu  are  two  small  islands: 
at  the  southeast  end  of  Tutuila  there  is  the  small 
island  of  Aunu'u,  and  sixty  miles  to  the  east  of  this 
Maun'a.  Of  these  islands  the  Rev.  Mr.  Powell,  of 
the  London  Missionary  Society,  says : 

"The  first  island  that  come  in  sight  of  voyagers 
arriving  from  the  eastward  is  Ta'u,  the  largest  of  the 
three  islands  that  constitute  the  group,  which  the 
natives  call  Manu'a.  It  is  about  six  miles  lone,  four 
and  a  half  broad,  and  sixteen  in  circumference,  and 
contains  one  hundred  square  miles.  [This  is  an 
evident  mathematical  mistake  of  Mr.  Powell,  as 
under  his  description,  taking  length,  breadth  or  cir- 
cumference, the  island  could  not  contain  more  than 
twenty-five  to  twenty-seven  square  miles.]  About 
six  miles  west  of  Tl'u  is  the  island  of  Olosenga. 
This  is  a  very  rocky  island,  three  miles  long,  500 
yards  wide,  and  about  1,500  feet  high." 

Savaii  and  Opolu  contain  the  largest  extent  of 
flat  land  ;  fully  two-thirds  of  their  area  (about  500,000 
acres)  are  fit  for  cultivation.  The  whole  group  is  of 
volcanic  origin  ;  craters  of  extinct  volcanoes  are  seen 
at  various  points.  Some  of  the  small  islands  of  the 
group  are  composed  of  a  single  large  crater  rising 
abruptly  from  the  sea.  The  soil  on  all  the  islands  is 
exceedingly  rich,  and  is  everywhere  covered  with  dense 
vegetation  from  the  water's  edge  up  to  the  tops  of  the 
mountains.  The  high  mountain  ridges  extending 
through  the  middle  of  the  larger  islands  attract  the 
passing  clouds,  which  furnish  a  copious  and  never-failing 
supply  of  moisture,  and  feed  the  numerous  streams  of 
beautiful,  clear  water  that  abound  in  every  direction. 


58  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

CLIMATE. 

The  climate  is  mild  and  agreeable  ;  the  tempera- 
ture generally  ranges  between  70  deg.  and  80  deg., 
but  the  heat  is  greatly  subdued  by  the  breezes  that  are 
constantly  blowing.  Mr.  Williams,  the  British  Consul, 
kept  a  meteorological  register  for  the  Board  of  Trade 
from  i860  to  1865,  from  which  I  made  an  abstract  of 
the  mean  recorded  temperature  in  every  month  in  the 
year  1864.  The  southeast  trade-winds  blow  steadily 
from  April  to  October,  being  strongest  in  June  and 
July.  From  November  to  March  westerly  winds  fre- 
quently blow,  but  not  for  any  length  of  time  together. 
A  strong  gale  may  generally  be  looked  for  some  time 
in  January,  but  frequently  an  entire  year  will  pass 
without  a  severe  storm.  February,  as  a  rule,  is  fine, 
with  variable  winds.  March  is  usually  the  worst  and 
most  boisterous  month  of  the  year,  the  winds  being 
still  variable,  and  gales  occurring  from  north  to  north- 
west. Copious  rains  fall  from  the  beginning  of  De- 
cember to  March.  June  and  July  are  the  coolest,  and 
September  and  October  the  hottest  months ;  although 
it  will  be  seen,  from  the  abstract  above  referred  to, 
that  there  is  very  little  variation  of  the  temperature 
throughout  the  year.  Hence  the  growth  of  vegeta- 
tion goes  on  without  check  all  the  year  around.  Cot- 
ton and  Indian  corn  will  yield  three  crops  a  year.  I 
saw  some  of  the  latter  gathered  in  January,  which  had 
been  sown  at  the  beginning  of  October.  Thus  it  was 
planted  and  the  crop  gathered  within  four  months. 
The  taro  also  comes  to  maturity  in  four  months,  and 
is  planted  continuously  all  the  year  round.  When  the 
natives  take  up  the  taro,  they  cut  off  the  top,  make  a 
hole  in  the  ground  with  a  stick,  into  which  the  top  is 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  59 

thrust,  without  the  ground  being  dug  over  or  in  any- 
way prepared.  A  short  time  after  it  is  planted,  they 
clean  the  ground  and  mulch  between  the  plants  with 
grass  and  leaves  to  keep  down  the  seeds.  Bananas 
yield  ripe  fruit  in  nine  months  after  planting,  some  of 
the  Introduced  varieties  coming  to  maturity  in  six 
months.  This  fruit  attains  a  great  size,  especially  the 
indigenous  varieties,  some  of  which  I  measured  and 
found  to  be  eio-ht  inches  longf  and  nine  inches  in  cir- 
cumference. 

PRODUCTS. 

The  following  are  the  principal  productions  of  the 
group :  Cocoanuts,  cotton,  native  chestnuts,  candle- 
nuts,  bananas,  plantains,  oranges,  lemons,  limes,  cit- 
rons, pineapples,  mangoes,  guavas,  Malay  apples, 
rose  apples,  custard  apples,  pawpaws,  tamarinds, 
bread-fruit,  sweet  casava,  indigo,  coffee,  Indian  corn, 
tobacco,  chile  and  medicinal  plants,  several  trees 
with  very  fragrant  blossoms  that  might  be  used  in  the 
preparation  of  scents,  somethat  exude  aromatic  gum, 
and  others  that  furnish  very  handsome  and  durable 
wood,  suitable  for  cabinet  ware  and  furniture. 

INHABITANTS. 

The  Samoan  natives  are  a  fine,  tall,  handsome 
race,  of  a  light  brown  color.  They  are  docile,  truth- 
ful and  hospitable,  and  are  very  lively  and  vivacious. 
In  conversation  among  themselves,  and  in  their  inter- 
course with  foreigners,  they  are  exceedingly  courteous 
and  polite.  They  have  different  styles  of  salutation, 
corresponding  with  the  social  rank  of  the  persons  ad- 
dressed ;   for  instance,  in  addressing  the  chiefs   or  dis- 


6o  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

tinguished  strangers,  they  use  the  expression  Lait-Afio, 
or  "Your  Majesty ;  "  in  speaking  to  chiefs  of  lower 
rank,  they  address  them,  Laii-Sitsii,  as  we  would  use 
the  words  "Your  lordship  ;  "  to  chiefs  of  lower  degree 
than  those  who  are  thus  addressed,  the  term  Ala-Ala 
is  used,  and  to  the  common  people  the  salutation  is 
Omai,  Sail,  simply  meaning  "You  have  arrived,"  or 
"You  are  here." 

The  men  only,  tattoo,  and  not  on  their  faces,  as 
the  New  Zealanders  do,  but  on  their  bodies  from  the 
waist  to  the  knee,  entirely  black  for  the  most  part, 
except  where  relieved  here  and  there  by  graceful 
stripes  and  patterns.  At  a  short  distance  this  tattoo- 
ing gives  them  the  appearance  of  having  on  black  knee 
breeches.  The  clothing  of  both  sexes  is  a  piece  of 
calico  or  native  cloth  wound  around  the  waist  and 
reaching  to  the  knees.  Some  of  the  women  wear  a 
couple  of  colored  cotton  handkerchiefs,  in  the  shape  of 
a  narrow  poncho,  over  their  breasts  and  shoulders, 
and  hanging  loosely  down  to  below  the  waist.  When 
in  the  bush,  or  working  on  their  taro  plantations,  or 
when  fishing,  they  wear  a  kilt  of  the  long,  handsome 
leaves  of  the  Ti  {Draccs7ta  tcnninalis).  They  have  a 
kind  of  fine  mat  plaited  from  thin  strips  of  the  leaves 
of  a  plant  called  Lau-ic.  These  mats  are  only  used  on 
important  occasions,  and  they  esteem  them  more  highly 
than  any  European  commodity.  Some  of  these  mats 
are  quite  celebrated,  having  names  that  are  known  all 
over  the  group  ;  the  older  they  are  the  more  they  are 
valued.  The  oldest  one  known  is  called  Moecfiii-fui, 
meaning  "the  mat  that  slept  among  the  creepers." 
This  name  was  Qriven  to  it  from  the  circumstance  of  its 
having  been  hidden  away  among  the  creeping  kind  of 
convolvolus  that  grows  along  the  shores  ;  it  is  known 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  6i 

to  be  over  two  hundred  years  old,  as  the  names  of  its 
different  owners  during  that  time  can  be  traced  down. 
The  best  mats  are  made  at  Manu'a.  They  are  the 
most  coveted  property  a  native  can  possess,  no  labor 
or  enterprise  being  considered  too  great  to  secure 
them..  Both  men  and  women  spend  a  great  deal  of 
of  time  in  dressing  their  hair,  and  frequently  apply 
lime  to  it,  which  is  laid  on  in  a  liquid  state  about  the 
consistency  of  cream,  and  has  the  effect  of  turning  the 
hair  to  a  reddish  hue.  Both  men  and  women  fre- 
quently wear  llowers  in  their  hair — generally  a  single 
blossom  of  the  beautiful  scarlet  Hybiscus,  which  is  al- 
ways found  growing  near  their  houses.  Nature  has 
supplied  them  so  bountifully  with  food,  in  the  shape  of 
the  cocoanut,  bread-fruit,  banana,  native  chestnuts,  and 
other  wild  fruits,  and  the  taro  yields  so  abundant  a 
crop  with  so  little  cultivation,  that  they  have  no  neces- 
sity to  exert  themselves  much,  and  they  are,  therefore, 
little  inclined  to  industry,  and  probably  will  never  be 
induced  to  undertake  steady  labor  of  any  kind.  Their 
houses  are  neat,  substantial  structures,  generally  cir- 
cular in  shape,  with  high,  pitched,  conical  roofs,  sup- 
ported in  the  centre  by  two  or  three  stout  posts,  and 
open  all  around,  but  fitted  with  narrow  mats  made  of 
cocoanut  leaves,  which  are  strung  together  like  Vene- 
tian blinds,  and  can  be  let  down  in  stormy  weather. 

The  Samoans  are  very  expert  in  the  management 
of  their  canoes,  of  which  they  have  five  different  kinds 
— the  Alia,  or  larsfe  double  canoe,  some  of  which  are 
capable  of  carrying  two  hundred  men  ;  the  TaiMJiau- 
lua,  from  thirty  to  fifty  feet  long — these  were  first  made 
about  thirty  years  ago,  and  are  fashioned  after  the 
model  of  our  whale-boats  ;  the  Va-lao,  or  fishing  ca- 
noes, with  out-riggers — a  beautiful  craft,  and  very  fast ; 


02  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

then  there  is  the  Loatau,  out-rigger,  dug-out  canoe, 
capable  of  carrying  five  or  six  people ;  and,  lastly,  the 
Paopao,  a  small  dug-out  canoe  for  one  person. 

RELIGION. 

The  natives  are  all  professed  Christians.  Christi- 
anity was  first  introduced  into  Samoa  in  August,  1830, 
by  the  Rev.  J.  Williams,  who  landed  a  number  of  na- 
tive teachers  from  Tahiti.  A  few  years  afterwards 
(about  1835)  five  English  missionaries,  belonging  to 
the  London  Missionary  Society,  landed  on  the  islands, 
and  from  that  time  to  the  present  several  Congrega- 
tional missionaries  have  been  constantly  resident  on 
the  group.  In  addition  to  these,  there  is  a  Roman 
Catholic  Bishop  resident  at  Apia,  and  a  number  of 
Catholic  priests  in  various  parts  of  the  islands.  The 
natives,  for  many  years  past,  have  annually  contributed 
considerable  sums  towards  the  support  of  the  mission 
establishments. 

These  islands,  in  their  varied  productiveness  and 
their  great  capabilities  for  immense  agricultural  re- 
turns, if  put  under  a  proper  system  of  cultivation,  with 
the  habits  and  manners  of  the  inhabitants,  are  a  fair 
type  of  the  most  of  the  groups  of  the  Pacific.  At  the 
present  day  they  are  living  proofs  of  the  incalculable 
benefits  that  may  arise  from  the  gradual  American 
protectorate,  with  its  modern  methods  and  appliances, 
spreading  over  these  regions. 

METEOROLOGICAL. 

Extract  from  the  Meteorological  Register  kept  at 
the    British     Consulate    at   Apia,   in    the     Navigator 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN 


63 


Islands,  which  may  be  accepted  as  about  the  tempera- 
ture of  all  of  the  tropical  islands  of  the  Pacific. 


MONTH. 


January.... 
February . 

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August..... 
September 
October.... 
November 
December. 


LOWEST  AND  HIGHEST  TEM- 
PERATURE   DURING   THE 
MONTH. 


6   A.  M. 


Lowest  Hitrhest 


/^ 
71 
70 
70 
65 
65 
61 

59 
67 
61 

73 
71 


75 
79 
81 
76 
82 
74 
74 
77 
78 

79 
76 

78 


4   p.  M. 


Lowest  Hisrhest 


76 
77 
74 
74 
78 
78 
79 
78 
81 
82 

78 
82 


82 
84 

85 
88 

85 
83 
82 

84 
83 
84 
79 
86 


HIGHEST    RE- 
CORDED   TEM- 
PERATURE 
DURING   THE 
MONTH. 


85 — at  8  A.  M. 
85     "10     " 

8     " 


86 
88 
85 
83 
82 

84 
86 
86 
84 


4   P.   M. 

4  " 

4  " 

4  " 

4  " 

8    A.  M. 


4   P.  M. 


BANKS    ISLANDS. 

North  of  the  New  Hebrides  we  come  to  the 
Banks  group,  named  after  Sir  Joseph  Banks,  scientist 
and  naturalist,  who  accompanied  Captain  Cook  in  his 
voyage  to  the  Society  Islands  in  1768. 

"  Vanua  Lava,  the  largest  of  the  group,  is  fifteen 
miles  in  lenofth  north  and  south,  and  is  a  remarkable 
looking  island,  with  several  high,  rounded  mountains, 
the  highest,  to  the  northwest,  being  some  2,800  feet 
above  the  sea.  In  the  Suutamiti  Mountain  are  several 
hot  springs,  always  steaming,  whilst  a  stream  impreg- 
nated with  sulphur  runs  clown  to  the  sea  on  the  north- 
west coast,  and  a  similar  one  falls  into  Port  Patterson 


64  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

on  the  Eastern  side.  There  are  two  waterfalls  on  the 
western  side — one  single  and  the  other  double.  The 
population  of  Vanua  Lava  is  about  1,500;  the  natives 
were  quiet  and  friendly." 

This  island,  with  Santa  Maria,  Mota,  Valua,  Arau 
and  Ureparapara,  with  some  smaller  islets  dotting  the 
sea,  make  up  the  group.  The  inhabitants  are  quite 
friendly  with  strangers,  although  very  quarrelsome 
among  themselves.-  This  may  be  attributed  to  their 
desire  to  trade  for  the  curiosities  (to  them)  in  the  pos- 
session of  the  whites.  Anj'thing,  from  a  small  piece 
of  hoop- iron  to  a  chopping-axe,  is  eagerly  bartered  for. 

The  weapons  of  the  natives  are  bows  and  poi- 
soned arrows,  war-clubs  and  spears,  which  they  handle 
with  the  greatest  dexterity.  The  products  are  fruit, 
sugar-cane,  taro,  potatoes  and  yams. 

SANTA    CRUZ   ISLANDS. 

Still  pursuing  our  northerly  course,  we  arrive  at 
Santa  Cruz  Islands,  composed  of  seven  larger  ones, 
Volcano,  Vuerta,  Santa  Cruz,  Edgecombe,  Ouvry  and 
Lord  Howe,  with  several  smaller  ones ;  Vanikoro  is 
made  interesting  in  a  historical  way,  from  having  been 
the  scene  of  the  wreck  of  the  two  vessels  under  com- 
mand of  Admiral  de  la  Perouse,  the  great  French 
voyager.  This  occurred  in  1788,  and  remained  an 
uncertainty  for  many  years,  causing  much  uneasiness 
in  his  native  land,  and,  in  fact,  all  over  the  civilized 
world.  Tn  1826  the  chains,  anchors,  cannon  and  some 
of  the  heavier  imperishable  portions  of  his  vessels 
were  discovered  at  this  island  and  taken  to  France,  in 
memory  of  Perouse. 

Of  Santa  Cruz,  Captain  Tilly  says :   "  It  is  about 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  6$ 

fifteen  or  sixteen  miles  in  length,  with  fringe  reefs  along 
the  shore,  but  apparently  no  off-lying  dangers.  The 
north  point  near  the  center  of  the  island  was  found 
to  be  in  latitude  lo  deg.  40  min.  south,  and  longitude 
166  detr.  X  min.  The  hiofh  land  extends  close  out  on 
its  northeast  side,  but  towards  the  northwest  the  hills 
slope  at  some  distance  from  the  extremes,  leaving 
a  considerable  extent  of  low  land  near  the  coast.  The 
island  is  well  wooded  and  watered,  the  streams  in  some 
places  running  through  the  villages  into  the  sea. 

"The  natives  are  a  fine  athletic  race,  and  came  off 
readily  to  the  ship,  bringing  pigs,  bread-fruit  and  yams. 
Mats,  in  the  manufacture  of  which  great  skill  is  di.s- 
played,  are  also  offered  for  sale.  The  appearance  of 
the  canoes,  houses,  etc.,  evinces  great  ingenuity. 
Canoes  with  outriggers,  and  mostly  lime-washed, 
have  a  neat  appearance;  they  have  also  large  sea- 
going double  canoes.  The  villages  are  large,  and 
houses  surrounded  by  stone  fences.  On  the  north 
side,  the  villaofes  are  close  to  the  sea,  with  from  ^00 
to  400  inhabitants  each.  The  natives  are  apparently 
merry  and  good-natured,  but  are  not  to  be  trusted, 
for  without  any  known  reason  they  attacked  the  boat 
of  the  Bishop,  on  leaving  the  village  of  the  northwest 
extremity  of  the  island,  and  nearly  succeeded  in  cut- 
ting- it  off.  Three  of  the  crew  were  wounded  with 
arrows,  and  of  these  two  died  from  the  effects  of  their 
wounds.  Their  bows  are  formidable  looking  weapons, 
being  seven  feet  in  length,  with  arrows  in  proportion." 

SOLOMON    ISLANDS. 

North  by  west  from  Santa  Cruz   is   the  Solomon 
Archipelago,  so   named   by  Mendana,  the  discoverer. 


66  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

in  1568,  supposing  the  islands  to  contain  all  the  wealth 
and  riches  like  unto  that  of  the  ancient  king.  They 
were  re-discovered  by  Phillip  Carteret,  in  1 767.  The 
group  is  very  extensive,  ranging  many  hundreds  of 
miles  northwest  and  southeast,  although  but  eight  or 
ten  are  well  enough  known  to  afford  data  for  a  de- 
scription. The  principal  are  Malayta,  Ysabel,  Guadal- 
canar,  Bougainville,  San  Christoval  and  Choiseul. 
They  are  of  large  size,  some  being  fully  100  miles 
long  by  twenty  or  thirty  miles  wide,  with  lofty  ranges 
of  mountains  sloping  gradually  to  the  sea,  well 
watered  and  covered  with  trees  and  ferns,  with  here 
and  there  beautiful  valleys,  and  streams  of  water 
meandering  through  them  to  the  sea. 

The  inhabitants  are  active  and  energetic,  and  are 
great  mariners,  their  canoes  being  well  built,  and 
handled  with  consummate  skill.  Some  of  their  war- 
canoes  are  fully  eighty  feet  long,  with  beam  of  five 
feet,  and  carry  sixty  men.  They  are  very  skillful  in 
carving,  while  many  of  their  weapons  and  industrial 
implements  are   inlaid  with  the  mother-of-pearl  shell. 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  67 


CHAPTER  V. 


isi<a?i;ds 


Deep  in  the  wave  is  a  coral  grove, 

Where  the  purple  mullet  and  gold  fish  rove. 

James  Gates  Percival. 
CAROLINE    ISLANDS. 

THE  Caroline  group,  extending  almost  from  the 
equator  to  12  deg.  north  latitude,  and  ranging 
from  135  deg.  to  177  deg.  east  longitude,  com- 
prises over  500  islands.  Dotting  the  great  Pacific  Sea 
with  lands  of  indescribable  fertility  and  fabulous  com- 
mercial possibilities,  they  are  almost  beyond  the  de- 
scription of  tongue  or  pen.  If  anything  were  needed 
to  substantiate  the  grandeur  and  extent  of  some  of  the 
islands  and  atolls  of  the  Pacific,  the  following  descrip- 
tion would  alone  suffice. 


THE    GREAT   ATOLL   OF    HOGOLEU. 

Lying  at  the  eastern  end  of  the  great  Caroline 
group,  it  surrounds  and  contains  within  its  limits  a 
principality.     If  one   could   imagine   a   strip    of  land 


68  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

five  to  eight  miles  wide,  varied  in  its  topography  by 
mountain,  hill  and  valley,  traversing  the  ocean  for 
nearly  300  miles,  in  almost  the  form  of  a  circle,  and 
this  strip  covered  with  the  most  beautiful  tropical 
foliage,  of  fruit  and  other  valuable  trees,  some  idea 
of  the  outward  form  of  Hopfoleu  miofht  be  obtained. 
Enclosed  in  this  great  circle  of  land  lies  the  lagoon, 
with  four  greater  and  twenty  smaller  islands  dotting 
the  surface,  on  whose  broad  expanse  of  waters  the 
combined  navies  of  the  world  might  ride  at  safe 
and  roomy  anchorage.  With  three  main  outlets  to 
the  ocean,  whose  width  and  depth  render  them  per- 
fectly safe  for  the  passage  of  the  greatest  ships, 
the  lagoon  forms  an  inland  harbor  unequalled  in  any 
other  part  of  the  world.  The  islands  in  the  lake, 
some  of  which  are  thirty  to  forty  miles  in  circum- 
ference, are  covered  with  valuable  timber,  and  abound 
in  all  the  tropical  fruits,  of  the  cocoanut,  citron, 
bread-fruit,  oranges,  bananas  and  mano-oes,  with  trees 
of  the  sago  and  date  palm,  and  timber  of  the  toa, 
tomano,  prima  vera,  and  great  quantities  of  sandal- 
wood. Fine  streams  of  fresh  water  flow  through  the 
valleys,  while  to  add  to  the  gorgeous  beauty  of  the 
scene,  birds  with  the  most  beautiful  and  valuable 
plumage  give  life  and  animation  to  the  forests  and 
glades.  Here,  too,  the  beche-de-mer,  the  tortoise 
and  turtle  find  their  favorite  breeding-grounds,  in  the 
water  and  alonof  the  shores.  The  o-reat  lake  teems 
with  fish  of  nearly  all  the  species  found  in  the  South 
Sea,  many  of  whose  brilliant  hues  and  colors  are 
only  equalled  by  the  pearl  shell  that  line  the  bed 
of  the  lacfoon.  The  latter  is  found  here  in  ij;-reat 
abundance,  of  the  largest  size  and  finest  quality, 
coverinor  the  bottom  of  the  lake  wherever  it   can  be 


OF   THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  69 

seen,  and  of  course   in   just  as  great   if  not  greater 
abundance  in  the  depths  not  reached  by  the  eye. 

Our  Hmited  stay  at  Hogoleu  hardly  gave  me  time 
to  form  a  just  opinion  of  the  character  and  manners  of 
the  natives,  for  which  I  have  been  forced  to  rely  upon 
the  valuable  experiences  and  writings  of  others. 

INHABITANTS. 

"In  judging-  of  the  character  of  the  Caroline  Island- 
ers, one  must  remember  that  there  are  always  two  sides 
to  a  question ;  and  in  connection  with  this  matter,  I 
may  refer  to  a  fact  which  I  regard  as  very  significant. 
All  Englishmen  are  familiar  with  the  story  of  the 
wreck  of  the  Antelope  at  the  Pelew  Islands  in  1793, 
and  of  the  Prince  Lee  Boo,  who  accompanied  Captain 
Wilson  to  Enorland.  These  same  Pelew  Islanders, 
who  at  that  time  treated  the  shipwrecked  Englishmen 
with  such  generous  hospitality  for  a  period  of  four 
months,  seeking  no  return  for  the  same,  are  now  re- 
garded as  piratical  miscreants  of  the  most  atrocious 
type — and  not  without  reason,  for  they  have  got  into 
a  bad  habit  of  going  out  to  sea  in  their  fast-sailing 
proas,  and  attacking,  off  the  coasts  of  their  islands, 
such  vessels  as  may  be  becalmed  or  entangled  among 
the  shoals ;  in  which  nefarious  practice  they  have,  on 
several  occasions,  so  far  succeeded  as  to  have  plun- 
dered the  vessels  and  massacred  their  crews.  This 
change  of  behavior  is  easily  accounted  for.  In  some 
cases  it  has  arisen  from  ill  treatment  which  they  have 
experienced  at  the  hands  of  strangers,  but  in  most 
cases  it  has  been  the  result  of  evil  example  by  a  set  of 
scoundrels  who  disgrace  humanity,  and  are  to  be  found 
strolling  about  these  seas,  making  themselves  at  home 


70  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

among  the  simple-minded  barbarians,  and  instructing 
them  in  every  vice  and  villainy. 

"  No  one  knows  with  any  certainty  how  many  in- 
habitants are  on  Hogoleu ;  some  say  15,000,  some 
20,000;  but  there  are  very  many.  They  are  armed 
with  good  swords  with  hilts  of  brass,  daggers,  spears 
pointed  with  iron,  bows  of  great  strength,  arrows 
headed  with  iron,  and  slings  out  of  which  they  fling 
round  stones  with  great  certainty  and  with  the  force 
of  a  shot.  The  iron  weapons  they  have  purchased 
from  traders  of  Manilla  and  elsewhere.  They  have 
many  combats  with  crews  of  ships,  and  display  great 
courage.  No  white  men  have  ever  lived  among  them, 
to  anyone's  knowledge,  though  I  have  heard  there  is 
one  living  there  now,  established  by  one  Captain 
Hayes.  Many  men  have  been  on  shore  and  have 
been  treated  with  hospitality.  From  what  I  have  seen 
of  them,  they  are  a  people  I  would  have  no  fear  of, 
although  they  have  an  ugly  habit  of  attacking  ships 
upon  small  grounds  of  offense.  In  1870  they  tried  to 
board  the  Vesta,  but  the  German  captain,  although  he 
lost  his  anchor  and  chain  by  having  to  slip  it,  was  more 
than  a  match  for  them.  He  fired  upon  them  with 
scrap-iron  and  killed  a  great  many.  Of  course,  he  was 
not  to  blame  ;  but  these  unfortunate  misunderstandino-s 
tend  very  much  to  perpetuate  ill  feeling. 

"  That  the  first  Europeans  who  can  succeed  in 
establishing  a  permanent  agency  upon  Hogoleu  will 
make  their  fortunes  in  a  very  short  period,  is  an  un- 
questionable fact.  This  island  presents  to  the  com- 
mercial adventurer  such  an  opportunity  as  is  scarcely 
to  be  found  elsewhere  in  the  world — not  alone  from 
the  valuable  products  of  the  land  itself,  but  from  the 
possession  of  so   magnificent  a  harbor  for  shipping, 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  71 

whence  could  be  extended  the  ramifications  of  a  trade 
on  a  large  scale  throughout  the  whole  great  Caroline 
Archipelago.  That  there  is  any  risk  in  the  attempt,  I 
do  not  for  a  moment  believe.  All  that  is  required  is 
for  one  determined  man,  acquainted  with  the  Caroline 
tongue,  to  secure,  by  acceptable  presents,  the  protec- 
tion of  a  chief,  to  marry  into  his  family  (as  he  would  be 
required  to  do),  and  after  a  few  months'  diplomacy  he 
might  have  it  all  his  own  way,  so  far  as  driving  a  trade 
for  his  owners  was  concerned." 


PELEW    ISLANDS ATOLLS. 

The  Pelew  Islands  referred  to  form  the  extreme 
western  end  of  the  Caroline  group,  and  were  discov- 
ered by  Drake  in  1579;  the  main  Carolines  having 
been  visited  by  Alonzo  de  Saavedra,  as  early  as  1528, 
although  the  discovery  of  the  group  has  been  ascribed 
by  some  writers  to  Lopez  Villa  Lobas,  in  1543,  which 
is  an  evident  mistake. 

These  Atolls,  or  horse-shoe  islands  (such  as  I 
have  described  Hogoleu),  are  an  important  feature  in 
the  geological  formation  of  the  Pacific  Isles,  and  are  to 
be  found  in  nearly  ev,ery  group,  as  well  as  scattered 
over  the  great  waste  of  waters  of  the  South  Sea, 
sometimes  isolated  and  alone,  at  others  in  groups  and 
chains,  having  the  appearahce  of  the  last  outposts  of  a 
sunken  continent.  Darwin,  Humboldt  and  others  ac- 
count for  their  singular  shape  and  formation  by  assum- 
ing that  at  one  time  they  were  portions  of  the  main- 
land or  continents,  or  islands,  and  that  their  centers, 
which  at  former  periods  were  hilly  and  mountainous, 
gradually  sank  and  disappeared ;  the  coral  insect 
building  the  fringe  or  edge  on  the  sunken  lands  in  the 


y2  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

form  we  now  see  them.  They  vary  somewhat  in  size 
and  form,  and  may  be  found  from  but  a  mile  or  so  in 
diameter  to  hundreds  of  miles  in  circumference. 

The  inland  lakes  are  nearly  always  safe  harboring 
for  vessels  sailing  and  trading  in  these  seas.  Gener- 
ally speaking,  there  are  from  one  to  four  openings  or 
passage-ways  from  the  sea  to  the  lagoons,  through 
which  the  tide  ebbs  and  flows.  These  channels  vary 
from  fifty  to  several  hundred  yards  in  width,  and  carry 
deep  navigable  water.  In  the  storms  and  gales  that 
sometimes  prevail  in  these  regions,  an  atoll  might 
be  truly  termed  the  sailors'  snug  harbor. 

CORAL    REEFS. 

A  wide  platform  of  rock,  covered  with  the  sea, 
except  at  low  tide,  borders  most  of  the  high  islands 
of  the  Pacific.  It  is  a  vast  accumulation  of  coral, 
based  upon  the  bottom  in  the  shallow  waters  of  the 
shores.  This  bank  or  table  of  coral  rock  is  of  vary- 
ing width,  from  a  few  hundred  feet  to  a  mile  or  more ; 
and  although  the  surface  is  usually  nearly  flat,  it  is  often 
intersected  by  irregular  boat  channels,  or  occasionally 
incloses  large  bays,  affording  harbor  protection  to 
scores  of  ships.  In  very  many  instances  it  stands  at  a 
distance  from  the  shores,  like  an  artificial  mole,  leav- 
ing a  wide  and  deep  channel  between  it  and  the  land, 
and  within  this  channel  are  other  coral  reefs,  some 
in  scattered  patches  and  others  attached  close  to  the 
shore.  The  inner  reef  in  these  cases  is  distinguished 
as  the  fringed  reef,  and  the  outer  as  the  barrier  reef. 
The  sea  rolls  in  heavy  surges  against  the  outer  margin 
of  the  barrier ;  but  the  still  waters  of  a  lake  prevail 
within,  affording  safe  navigation  for  the  tottling  canoe, 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  yj 

sometimes  through  the  whole  circuit  of  an  island  ; 
and  not  unfrequendy  ships  may  pass,  as  by  an  internal 
canal,  from  harbor  to  harbor  around  the  island. 

The  reef  is  covered  by  the  sea  at  high  tide,  yet 
the  smoother  waters  indicate  its  extent  and  a  line  of 
breakers  its  outline.  Occasionally  a  green  islet  rises 
from  the  reef,  and  in  some  instances  a  grove  of 
palms  stretches  along-  the  barrier  for  miles,  where  the 
action  of  the  sea  has  raised  the  coral  structure  above 
the  waves. 

Coral  islands  resemble  the  reefs  just  described, 
except  that  a  lake  or  lagoon  is  encircled  instead  of  a 
mountainous  island.  A  narrow  rim  of  coral  reef  o-en- 
erally  but  a  few  hundred  yards  wide,  stretches  around 
the  inclosed  waters.  In  some  parts  it  is  so  low  that 
the  waves  are  still  dashing-  over  it  into  the  lagoon, 
and  in  others  it  is  verdant  with  the  rich  foliage  of  the 
tropics.  The  coral-made  land  when  highest  is  seldom 
over  eieht  or  ten  feet  in  height. 

When  first  seen  from  the  deck  of  a  vessel,  only 
a  series  of  dark  points  are  descried  just  above  the 
horizon.  Shortly  after,  the  points  enlarge  into  the 
plumed  tops  of  the  cocoanut  trees,  and  a  line  of 
green,  interrupted  at  intervals,  is  traced  along  the 
water's  surface.  Approaching  still  nearer,  the  lake 
and  its  belt  of  verdure  are  spread  out  before  the  eye, 
and  a  scene  of  more  interest  can  scarcely  be  imagined. 
The  surf  beating  loud  and  heavy  along  the  margin  of 
the  reef,  presents  a  strange  contrast  to  the  prospect 
beyond — the  white  coral  beach,  the  massy  foliage  of 
the  grove,  and  the  embosomed  lake  w^ith  its  tiny  islets. 
:;:  ::■:  =:•:  Vcry  erroneous  ideas  prevail  respecting  the 
appearance  of  a  bed  or  area  of  growing  corals.  The 
submerged  reef  is  often  thought  of  as  an   extended 


74  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

mass  of  coral,  alive  uniformly  over  its  upper  surface, 
and  by  this  living  growth  gradually  enlarging  upward ; 
and  such  preconceived  views  when  ascertained  to  be 
erroneous  by  observation,  have  sometimes  led  to 
skepticism  with  regard  to  the  zoophyte  origin  of  the 
reef  rock.  Nothing  is  wider  from  the  truth,  and  this 
must  have  been  inferred  from  the  description  already 
given.  Another  glance  at  the  coral  plantation  should 
be  taken  by  the  reader,  before  proceeding  with  the  ex- 
planations which  follow. 

Coral  plantation  and  coral  field  are  more  appro- 
priate appellations  than  coral  garden,  and  convey  a 
juster  impression  of  the  surface  of  a  growing  reef. 
Like  a  spot  of  wild  land,  covered  in  some  parts  with 
varied  shrubbery,  in  other  parts  bearing  only  occa- 
sional tufts  of  vegetation  over  barren  plains  of  sand, 
here  a  clump  of  saplings,  and  there  a  carpet  of  vari- 
ously colored  flowers — such  is  the  coral  plantation. 

Numerous  kinds  of  zoophytes  grow  scattered 
over  the  surface,  like  the  vegetation  of  the  land. 
There  are  laro^e  areas  that  bear  nothino-,  aTid  others 
that  are  thickly  overgrown.  There  is  no  green 
sward  to  the  landscape,  and  here  the  comparison 
fails.  Sand  and  fragments  fill  up  the  bare  intervals 
between  the  flowering  tufts,  or  where  the  zoophytes 
are  crowded  ;  there  are  deep  holes  among  the  stony 
stems  and  folia,  that  seem  as  if  formed  among  the 
aoj-o-reo^ated  roots  of  the  livinof  corals.     -'^     '='     "■•' 

These  fields  of  growing  coral  spread  over  sub- 
marine lands,  such  as  the  shores  of  islands  and  conti- 
nents, where  the  depth  is  not  greater  than  their  habits 
require — just  as  vegetation  extends  itself  through  re- 
gions that  are  congenial.  The  germ  or  ovule,  which, 
when   first   produced,  swims   free,  finds   afterwards  a 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  js 

point  of  rock  or  dead  coral  to  plant  itself  upon,  and 
thence  springs  the  tree  or  some  other  form  of  coral 
growth. 

ANALOGY   TO    VEGETATION. 

The  analogy  to  vegetation  does  not  stop  here.  It 
is  well  known  that  the  debris  of  the  forest,  decaying 
leaves  and  stems,  and  animal  remains,  add  to  the  soil, 
and  that  accumulations  of  this  kind  are  ceaselessly  in 
progress  ;  that  by  this  means,  in  the  luxuriant  swamp, 
deep  beds  of  peaty  earth  are  formed.  So  it  is  in  the 
coral  mead.  Accumulations  of  frasfments  and  sand 
from  the  coral  zoophytes,  and  of  shells  and  other  relics 
of  organic  life,  are  in  constant  progress,  and  thus  a  bed 
of  coral  debris  is  formed  and  compacted. 

There  is  this  difference^ — that  a  large  part  of  the 
vegetable  material  consists  of  elements  which  escape 
as  gases  on  decomposition  ;  whereas,  coral  is  itself  an 
endurinor  rock  material,  undercroincr  no  essential 
change  except  the  mechanical  one  of  comminution,  the 
animal  portion  is  but  a  mere  fraction  of  the  whole  zo- 
ophyte. 

In  these  few  hints  we  have  the  whole  theory  of 
reef  making;  not  a  speculative  opinion,  but  a  legiti- 
mate deduction  from  a  few  simple  facts,  and  bearing 
close  analogy  on  land.  The  coral  debris  and  shells 
fill  up  the  intervals  between  the  coral  patches  and  the 
cavities  among  the  living  tufts,  and  in  this  manner  pro- 
duce the  reef  deposit,  which  is  consolidated  by  the 
filtrating  sea-water,  having  more  or  less  lime  in  so- 
lution. 

(Notes  from  U.  S.  Ex.  Expedition  in  1838,  '39,  '40,  '41  and  '42  ; 
James  D.  Dana,  A.  M.,  Geol.  of  Ex.) 


j6  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

AUSTRAIJA. 

The  leviathan  of  the  island  groups  of  the  world, 
Australia  (literally  South  Asia),  lies  between  latitude 
lo  deg.  43  min.  and  39  deg.  9  min.  south,  and  longi- 
tude 113  deg.  15  min.  and  153  deg.  east,  comprising 
within  its  vast  limits  three  million  square  miles.  It 
has  a  sea-coast  of  over  eight  thousand  miles,  along 
the  line  of  which  eighty-two  small  islands  are  located. 
Australia  was  discovered  about  1606  by  the  Dutch, 
who  were  the  first  to  locate  it  and  chronicle  its  exist- 
ence in  modern  times.  It  was  first  named  by  them 
New  Holland,  a  name  retained  for  many  years. 

From  the  sea  this  great  island-continent  presents 
an  uninviting  appearance,  giving  one  the  impression 
that  the  crags  and  mountains  fringing  the  shores  en- 
close a  sterile  waste  within.  Probably  no  country  in 
the  world  has  received  more  attention  from  men  of 
science  and  explorers  than  Australia,  and  that,  too, 
with  less  beneficial  results,  as  the  great  mountain  ran- 
ges and  barren  wastes  of  the  interior  are  to<lay  as  an 
unknown  land. 

One  of  the  greatest  detriments  to  its  rapid  pro- 
gress in  peopling  and  civilization,  was  its  establish- 
ment as  a  penal  colony  by  Great  Britain.  This,  to- 
gether with  the  low  order  of  the  native  races,  some 
two  hundred  thousand  in  number,  who  are  little  above 
the  animal  in  the  scale  of  humanity,  proved  for  many 
years  a  great  barrier  to  the  peopling  of  the  island  with 
the  better  classes.  Until  1851  the  progress  of  Aus- 
tralia was  under  a  ban;  when  Mr.  Haro-reaves,  return- 
ing  from  the  gold  fields  of  California,  discovered  the 
precious  metal  on  the  island.  From  this  time  may  be 
dated    the    advancement  of  that  country.     The  gold 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  -jj 

fever  drew  people  from  all  parts  of  the  world  to  settle 
on  her  shores.  Cities  and  towns  rapidly  spranij  into 
existence,  while  the  consequent  development  of  great 
agricultural  resources,  fed  with  the  thousand  millions 
in  gold  taken  from  her  mines,  placed  her  at  once 
amonof  the  ofreat  countries  of  the  world.  With  the 
single  exception  of  California,  nothing  like  Australia's 
progress  has  occurred  in  ancient  or  modern  times. 
The  discovery  of  many  valuable  mines  of  copper,  coal, 
tin,  lead  and  silver  followed  that  of  gold,  and  being 
found  in  large  and  paying  quantities,  add  largely  to 
the  income  of  the  inhabitants. 


PHYSICAL    FEATURES. 

The  mountain  ranges  on  the  island  are  but  few  in 
number.  The  greatest  altitude  of  those  already  dis- 
covered does  not  exceed  seven  thousand  feet. 

There  are  many  ponds  and  swamps  in  the  inte- 
rior, with  few  navigable  streams — only  in  the  rainy 
season.  Even  then  navigation  is  very  uncertain,  as 
the  waters  of  most  of  the  rivers  frequently  disappear 
— lost  in  the  sands  of  the  surrounding  wastes. 

The  flora  of  the  island  is  not  varied  or  extensive, 
but  two  species  forming  the  principal  forest  gro\vth — 
the  eucalyptii  and  acacia — although  more  than  one 
hundred  varieties  of  each  of  these  interesting  species 
are  found,  and  in  great  abundance. 

GEOLOGICAL    AND    GEOGRAPHICAL. 

The  geological  formation  is  quite  an  interesting 
study,  partaking  of  the  eruptic.  metamorphic,  trappean, 
with  the  sedimentary  sandstones  of  the  tertiary  period. 


7<?  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

From  careful  scientific  observations,  It  is  found  that 
Australia  is  slowly  rising-  from  the  deep — gradually  but 
surely  taking  its  place  among  the  continents  of  the 
world.  Unlike  some  of  its  short-lived  neighbors  lying 
to  the  westward  in  the  Straits  of  Sudan,  whose  appear- 
ance and  disappearance  mark  but  a  period  in  the 
birth,  growth  and  death  of  islands,  Australia  is  appa- 
rently on  a  foundation  that  may  last  for  all  time.  The 
population  is  about  two  millions,  who,  when  not  min- 
ing, are  principally  in  the  agricultural  and  grazing  in- 
terests. The  value  of  exports  and  imports  may  be 
stated  at  $500,000,000  per  annum. 

The  island,  from  its  immense  area,  is  marked  off 
in  several  colonial  divisions.  The  principal  of  these 
are  Northern  Australia,  or  Alexandra's  Land,  colonized 
in  1838  ;  Western  Australia,  colonized  in  1829  ;  south 
from  which  is  Tasman's  Land,  surveyed  in  1818;  Sou- 
thern Australia,  colonized  in  1834;  Queensland  on 
the  northeast,  and  New  South  Wales  on  the  southeast, 
colonized  in  1778. 

Captain  Cook  is  credited  with  the  discovery  of 
Australia  in  1770.  Tasman,  who  discovered  New  Zea- 
land and  Tasmania  as  early  as  1642,  could  not  have 
failed  to  notice  and  locate  it  in  his  voyages.  Dirk 
Hartoof,  a  Dutch  navirator,  is  credited  also  with  its 
discovery,  by  some  authorities,  in  1606. 

NEW    ZEALAND. 

This  group  of  three  principal  and  thirteen  smaller 
islands,  to  the  southeast  of  Australia,  between  lati- 
tudes 34  deg.  and  48  deg.  south  and  161  deg.  and  179 
deg.  east  longitudes,  comprise  in  their  area  122,582 
square  miles,  a  little  larger  than  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland.     The  population  is  476,000. 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN 


79 


The  geological  formation  is  volcanic  eruptic,  with 
the  sedimentary  formations  and  fossils  of  the  tertiary 
period.  Like  Australia,  the  lands  are  slowly  rising- 
from  the  sea. 

Of  minerals,  the  islands  have  an  abundant  sup- 
ply— rcoal,  copper,  iron,  lead  and  manganese  being 
found. 

The  natural  vegetation  of  New  Zealand  is  won- 
derful in  its  luxuriance,  many  hundreds  of  species 
crowding  the  forests.  Nearly  all  of  these  are  of  the 
evergreen  type,  and  give  to  the  islands  an  aj>pear- 
ance  of  perpetual  spring. 

Of  the  animal  kingdom  there  is  but  little  to  be 
said,  as  when  discovered  in  1642,  by  Tasman,  a  species 
of  rat  and  the  dog  were  about  the  only  animals  to  be 
found.  Those  of  a  more  recent  date  are  altogether 
domestic,  the  results  of  importations  from  other  coun- 
tries by  the  settlers. 

From  the  long  narrow  configuration  of  the 
islands,  the  streams,  though  many  in  number,  are  of 
no  great  length,  breadth  or  depth. 

Mountain  ranges  cross  the  islands  in  many  places, 
but  generally  speaking  are  not  of  great  prominence, 
if  we  except  Mt.  Cook,  which  is  supposed  to  be 
14,000  feet  high.  There  are  many  evidences  of  vol- 
canic action  throughout  the  group.  Tongariro  is  the 
only  active  volcano  at  the  present  time. 

Of  the  natives,  Mr.  Taylor  says:  "The  New 
Zealanders  are  decidedly  a  mixed  race — some  have 
wooly  hair,  others  brown  or  flaxen ;  some  are  many 
shades  darker  than  others.  The  peculiar  features  of 
the  Mongol  are  also  very  common ;  the  oblique  eye, 
the  yellow  countenance,  the  remarkable  depression  of 
the  space  between  the  eyes  so  that  there  is  no  rise  in 


8o  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

the  nose,  seem  clearly  to  indicate   that  some   portion 
of  the  race  is  of  Chinese  or  Japanese  descent. 

TASMANIA. 

Tasmania,  or  Van  Dieman's  Land,  just  south  of 
Australia,  between  40  deg,  40  min.  and  43  deg.  38 
min.  south  latitude,  and  longitude  144  deg.  2)o  "^i'^- 
and  148  deg.  28  min.  east,  a  group  of  some  seven- 
teen islands  occur  ;  but  one  of  them  is  of  any  size  or 
importance  at  present. 

Tasmania  was  discovered  and  located  by  Tasman 
in  1642,  but  w^as  re-located  and  taken  possession  of 
by  the  English  in  1803.  The  island  has  an  area  of 
22,629  square  miles,  with  a  population  of  110,000. 

The  island  is  of  a  similar  formation  to  Australia, 
althouo^h  the  soil  is  much  more  fertile,  and  without 
any  of  the  desert  wastes  of  the  larger  island.  The 
mountain  ranges  are  extensive,  but  not  of  very  great 
height.  The  forests  are  immense,  the  eucalyptus  and 
acacia,  in  all  their  many  varieties,  growing  in  the 
o-reatest  luxuriance. 

Of  minerals,  Tasmania  has  an  abundance — gold, 
copper,  iron  and  coal  mines  are  worked  at  a  consid- 
erable profit. 

The  climate  is  temperate ;  all  the  fruits,  vegeta- 
bles and  cereals  are  cultivated,  formingf  one  of  the 
principal  exports  of  the  group. 

The  natives  are  of  the  same  type  as  the  abo- 
rigines of  New  Zealand  and  Australia,  and  are  now 
nearly  extinct. 


COFFEE    PLANT — JAVA. 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  8i 


CHAPTER  VI. 


XSI^ABiDH 


The  place  is  all  awave  with  trees, 

Limes,  myrtles,  purple-beaded; 

Acacias  having  drunk  the  lees 

Of  the  night-dew,  faint-headed  ; 

And  wan,  grey  olive-woods,  which  seem 

The  fittest  foliage  for  a  dream. 

E.  B.  Browxixg  {An  Island). 

JAVA. 

THE  Island  of  Java,  with  its  52,000  square  miles, 
peopled   by   nearly  eighteen   millions   of   inhabi- 
tants— the  "land  of  fire,"  the  home  of  the  erup- 
tic  volcano  and  earthquake — has  long  been  the  subject 
of  interesting  study  for  the  historian  and  scientist. 

Here  we  find,  besides  innumerable  smaller  ones, 
one  of  the  largest  volcanic  craters  in  the  world,  having 
a  circumference  around  its  edge  of  about  twelve  miles. 
In  1772  this  crater  was  in  active  force,  casting  its  ashes 
and  scoria  over  a  great  tract  of  country.  Thousands 
of  inhabitants  lost  their  lives — either  caught  in  their 
homes  by  the  burning  lava,  or  suffocated  by  the  smoke, 
ashes  and  sulphur.  The  heavens  were  lit  up  for  hun- 
dreds of  miles  around  with  a  glare  only  equalled  by 
that  of  the  aurora  borealis,  the  surrounding  seas  liter- 


82  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

ally  covered  with  the  finer  particles  of  pumice  and 
ashes,  while  the  dust  and  smoke  hung  in  and  darkened 
the  heavens  for  days  afterwards. 

Another  eruption  took  place  in  1832,  with  the  loss 
of  nearly  thirty  thousand  lives,  and  again  in  1883,  when 
it  is  supposed  one  hundred  thousand  people  were  de- 
stroyed, with  a  vast  waste  created  over  a  beautiful  and 
thriving  agricultural  country. 

GENERAL    FEATURES. 

The  topographical  features  of  the  island,  its  chains 
of  mountains  and  plateaus,  with  the  valleys  lying  be- 
tween, the  latter  well  watered  by  meandering  rivers, 
are  nearly  all  taken  advantage  of  by  a  skillful,  agricul- 
tural people.  The  waters  from  abundant  rainfalls 
are  treasured  in  reservoirs  on  the  higher  plateaus,  and 
held  in  reserve  for  the  drier  periods.  They  are  thus 
enabled  to  reap  two  crops  per  annum,  and  place  their 
plantations  in  almost  continuous  bloom.  On  the  cul- 
tivated lands,  immense  quantities  of  coffee,  sugar,  rice 
and  cotton  are  grown,  with  all  the  fruits  of  the  tropics, 
as  well  as  the  clove,  nutmeQf  and  cinnamon,  and  other 
spices. 

Included  in  the  flora  of  the  native  forests  are  the 
gutta  percha,  toa  tomano,  camphor,  sandal,  satin-wood 
and  mahogany  trees. 

The  agricultural  methods  adopted  by  the  natives, 
with  the  use  of  irrigation,  was  imparted  to  them  by  the 
Hindoos  and  others  of  the  East  India  countries,  who 
visited  this  island  in  great  numbers  many  years  pre- 
vious to  the  ninth  century. 

The  inhabitants  at  present  are  hospitable  and  in- 
telligent— partaking  of  the  higher  class  of  Arabs  in 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  83 

character  and  religfion.  The  Mohammedan  behef  is 
general,  having  been  forced  on  the  Javanese  by  the 
Arabs  in  the  15th  century. 


MICHELET    ON    JAVA. 

Of  Java,  Michelet,  the  great  French  writer,  says: 
It  is  dowered  with  fires.  Notwithstanding  its  hmited 
area,  it  possesses  as  many  as  the  entire  continent  of 
America,  and  all  of  them  more  terrible  than  burninof 
Etna.  And  to  these  we  must  add  its  liquid  volcano^ 
its  vein  of  somber  azure  which  the  Japanese  call  the 
"Black  River."  This  the  great  Equatorial  Current, 
which  in  its  northerly  course  warms  the  Asiatic  seas, 
is  remarkable  for  its  muddiness,  and  tastes  Salter  than 
human  blood. 

A  hot  sea — a  torrid  sun — volcanic  fire — volcanic 
life !  Not  a  day  passes  but  a  tempest  breaks  out 
amony  the  Blue  Mountains,  with  licrhtninof  so  vivid 
that  the  eye  cannot  endure  to  gaze  at  it.  Torrents  of 
electric  rain  intoxicate  earth  and  madden  vegetation. 
The  very  forests  smoking  with  wreathed  vapors  in  the 
burning  sun,  seem  so  many  additional  volcanoes  sit- 
uated midway  on  the  mountain  slopes. 

In  the  loftier  regions,  they  are  frequently  inac- 
cessible, and  sometimes  so  thickly  intertangled,  so 
dense,  so  gloomy,  that  the  traveler  who  penetrates 
them  must  carry  torches  even  at  noonday.  Nature 
without  an  eye  to  watch  her,  celebrates  there  her 
''orcjies  of  veofetation,"  and  creates,  as  Blum  informs 
us.  her  river  monsters  and  colossi. 

Stemless  rhizanthae  seize  on  the  roots  of  a  tree 
and  gorge  themselves  with  its  pith  and  vitality.  Trav- 
elers speak  of  a   species  which   measures   six   feet   in 


84  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

circumference.  Their  splendor,  shining  in  the  deep 
night  of  the  forest,  astonishes,  nay,  almost  terrifies 
the  spectator.  These  children  of  the  darkness  owe 
nothing  of  their  resplendent  coloring  to  the  light. 
Flourishing  low  down  in  the  warm  vapors,  and  fat- 
tened by  the  breath  of  earth,  they  seem  to  be  its  Jux- 
urious  dreams,  its  strange  airy  phantasies  of  desire. 

Java  has  two  faces.  The  southern,  wears  already 
the  aspect  of  Oceania,  enjoys  a  pure  air,  and  is 
surrounded  by  rocks  all  alive  with  polypes  and 
madepores.  To  the  north,  however,  it  is  still  in 
India — India,  with  all  it  inherits  of  unhealthiness  ;  a 
black  alluvial  soil,  fermenting  with  the  deadly  travail 
of  Nature  reacting  on  herself,  with  the  work  of  com- 
bination and  decomposition.  Its  inhabitants  have 
been  compelled  to  abandon  the  once  opulent  town  of 
Bantam,  which  is  now  a  mass  of  ruins.  .Superb  Ba- 
tavia  is  one  triumphant  cemetery.  In  less  than  thirty 
years— from  1730  to  1752 — it  swallowed  up  a  fnillion 
of  human  lives  ;  sixty  thousand  in  a  single  twelve-month 
(1750)!  And  though  it  is  not  so  terribbe  now,  its 
atmosphere  has  not  been  purified  to  any  considerable 
extent. 

The  animals  of  the  primeval  world  which  live 
forgotten  in  its  bosom  are  remarkable,  it  seems,  for 
their  funeral  aspect.  In  the  evening  enormous  hairy 
bats,  such  as  are  found  nowhere  else,  flutter  to  and 
fro.  By  day,  and  even  at  noon,  the  strange  flying 
dragon,  that  memorial  of  a  remote  epoch,  when  the 
serpent  was  endowed  with  wings,  does  not  hesitate  to 
make  its  appearance.  Numerous  black  animals  exist 
which  agree  in  color  with  the  black  basalt  of  the  moun- 
tains. And  black,  too,  is  the  tiger,  that  terrible  destroyer, 
which  as  late  as  1830.  devoured  annually  300  lives. 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  85 

TOPOGRAPHY. 

The  double  mountain  chain,  which  forms  the  back- 
bone of  Java,  is  intersected  by  numerous  internal  val- 
leys, running"  in  opposite  directions,  varying  the  specta- 
cle. This  diversity  of  surface  insures  a  corresponding 
diversity  of  vegetation.  The  soil  in  the  valleys  is 
madreporic,  and  was  once  alive.  At  a  higher  level  it 
has  its  foundation  of  granite,  loaded  with  fertile  ruins 
and  hot  debris  of  the  volcanoes.  The  whole  is  a  vast 
ascending  scale,  which  from  sea  to  mountain  presents 
six  different  climates,  rising  from  the  marine  flora  and 
the  flora  of  the  marshes  to  the  Alpine  flora.  A  superb 
amphitheater,  rich  and  abundant  at  each  gradation, 
bearing  the  dominant  plants  and  those  transitional 
forms  which  lead  up  from  one  to  the  other,  and  lead 
so  ingeniously  that  without  any  lacuna  or  abrupt  leap, 
we  are  carried  onwards,  and  vainly  endeavor  to  trace 
between  the  six  climates  any  rigorous  lines  of  de- 
marcation. 

In  the  lowlands  facinof  India  and  the  boiling- 
caldron  of  the  ocean,  the  mangrove  absorbs  the 
vapors.  But  towards  Oceania  and  the  region  of  the 
thousand  isles,  the  cocoanut  tree  rises,  with  its  foot  in 
the  emerald  wave  and  its  crest  lightly  rocking  in  the 
full  fresh  breeze. 

The  palm  is  here  of  little  value.  Above  its  bam- 
boos and  resinous  trees,  Java  wears  a  magnificent 
girdle,  or  zone,  of  forest — a  forest  wholly  composed 
of  teak,  the  oak  of  oaks,  the  finest  wood  in  the  world 
— indestructible  teak.     '-^     *     '=' 

Here  every  kind  of  food,  and  all  the  provisions 
of  the  five  worlds  superabound.  The  rice,  maize, 
figs  and  bananas  of  Hindostan ;    the  pears  of  China ; 


86  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

the  apples  of  Japan,  flourish  in  company  with  the 
peach,  pineapple  and  orange  of  Europe — aye,  and 
even  with  the  strawberry,  which  extends  its  growth 
along  the  banks  of  the  streams. 

All  this  is  the  innocence  of  nature.  But  side  by 
side  with  it  prevails  another  and  more  formidable 
world — that  of  the  higher  vegetable  energies,  the 
plants  of  temptation,  seductive,  yet  fatal,  which  double 
the  pleasures,  while  shortening  the  duration  of  life. 

At  present  they  reign  throughout  the  earth,  from 
pole  to  pole.  They  make  and  unmake  nations.  The 
least  of  these  terrible  spirits  has  wrought  a  greater 
change  in  the  globe  than  any  war.  They  have  im- 
planted in  man  the  volcanic  fires ;  and  a  soul,  a 
violent  spirit  which  is  indefinable,  which  seems  less  a 
human  thing  than  a  creature  of  the  planet.  They  have 
effected  a  revolution,  which,  above  all,  has  changed 
our  idea  of  time.  Tobacco  kills  the  hours  and  ren- 
ders them  insensible.  Coffee  shortens  them  by  the 
stimulus  it  affords  the  brain;  it  converts  them  into 
minutes. 

Foremost  among  the  sources  of  intoxication  to 
which  care  unhappily  resorts,  we  must"  name  alcohol. 
Eight  species  of  the  sugar-cane  which  thrive  in  Java 
abundantly  supply  this  agent  of  delirium  and  forcible 
feebleness.  No  less  abundantly  flourishes  tobacco, 
the  herb  of  dreams,  which  has  enshrouded  the  world 
in  its  misty  vapors.  Fortunately  Java  also  produces 
immense  supplies  of  its  antidote,  coffee.  It  is  this 
which  contends  against  tobacco,  and  supplies  the 
place  of  alcohol.  The  island  of  Java  alone  furnishes 
a  fourth  of  all  the  coffee  drank  by  man,  and  a  coffee, 
too,  of  fine  quality,  which  has  been  dried  sufficiently, 
without  any  fear  of  reducing  its  weight. 


OF   THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  87 

Formerly  Java  and  Its  neighboring  lands  were 
known  as  spice  islands  only,  and  as  producing  freely 
violent  drugs  and  medicinal  poisons.  Frightful  stories 
were  circulated  of  its  deadly  plants,  the  juice  of  which 
was  a  mortal  venom — of  xh^-Giceva-Upas,  which  but  to 
touch  was  death ! 

CLIMATE. 

He  who  would  see  the  East  in  all  the  fullness  of 
its  magical,  voluptuous  and  sinister  forces,  should  ex- 
plore the  great  bazaars  of  Java.  There  the  curious 
jewels  wrought  by  the  cunning  Indian  hand  are  ex- 
posed to  the  desires  of  woman,  temptation  and  the 
cost  of  pleasure.  There,  too,  may  be  seen  another 
seductive  agency — the  vegetable  fury  of  the  burning 
and  scorching  plains  which  is  so  eagerly  sought  after ; 
the  perfumes  of  terrible  herbs  and  flowers,  as  yet  un- 
named. Marvelous  and  profound  the  night,  in  its 
sweet  repose,  after  the  violent  heats  of  the  day!  But 
be  cautious  in  your  enjoyment  of  it ;  as  it  grows  old  it 
breathes  death  ! 

Take  note  of  this :  The  peculiarity  that  gives  to 
these  bazaars  so  curious  an  effect  is,  that  all  the  throng- 
ing crowds  are  dusky,  with  dark  complexions,  and  all 
the  animals  are  black.  The  contrast  is  singular  in 
this  land  of  glowing  light.  The  heat  seems  to  have 
burned  up  everything,  and  tinted  each  object  with 
shadow.  The  little  horses,  as  they  gallop  past  you. 
seem  but  so  many  flashes  of  darkness  ;  the  buffaloes, 
slowly  arriving,  loaded  with  fruit  and  flowers — with 
the  most  radiant  gifts  of  life — all  wear  a  livery  of  blu- 
ish black. 

Beware,  at  this  time  of  night,  not  to  wander  too 
far,  or  ramble   in  the  higher  grounds,  lest  you  should 


8S  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

encounter  the  black  panther,  whose  green  eyes  ilkl- 
mine  the  obscurity  with  a  terrific  glare  !  And — who 
knows? — the  splendid  tyrant  of  the  forest,  the  black 
tiger,  may  have  begun  his  midnight  prowl — that  for- 
midable phantom  which  the  Malays  of  Java  believe  to 
be  the  spirit  of  Death  ! 

I  have  quoted  thus,  at  some  length,  from  the  writ- 
ings of  Michelet,  as  the  ideas  advanced  will  serve  alike 
for  Sumatra  and  some  of  the  Mollucca  Islands. 

Borneo,  singularly,  is  altogether  free  from  the 
eruptic,  volcanic  and  earthquake  forces.  Situated  al- 
most directly  in  the  course  of  the  "fire  belt,"  there  are 
yet  no  authentic  records  in  the  history  of  Borneo,  for 
ages  past,  of  any  of  those  fearful  outbursts  so  frequent 
in  Java  and  Sumatra. 

LITTLE    JAVA. 

Much  more  could  be  written  of  Java  and  the  is- 
lands surrounding  it.  As  almost  a  part  of  the  greater 
island,  we  might  cite  Little  Java,  with  nearly  four  thou- 
sand square  miles  of  area,  and  a  population  of  about 
eight  hundred  thousand  people.  Separated  from 
Great  Java  by  a  strait  hardly  two  miles  in  width,  its 
configuration,  climate,  inhabitants  and  products  are  so 
similar  that  a  description  would  bat  tire  the  reader, 

COFFEE. 

Before  leaving  Java,  it  might  be  well  to  notice 
coffee,  the  principal  and  most  valuable  product  of  that 
island.  Coffea  Aribica,  no  doubt,  derives  its  name 
from  Kaffa,  a  district  of  Southern  Abyssinia,  on  the 
east  coast  of  Africa.    The  coffee  plant  is  an  evergreen, 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCF.LX  89 

and  was  lirst  found  growing-  wild  in  Arabia.  Africa  and 
some  portions  of  South  America.  It  is  sometimes 
cultivated  at  a  height  of  six  thousand  feet  above  the 
sea-level,  but  this  only  in  warm  countries,  as  the  tree 
does  not  thrive  in  climates  where  the  thermometer  falls 
below  SS  deof. 

In  its  wild  state  the  tree  grows  from  ten  to  thirty 
feet  high,  but  when  cultivated  it  is  pruned  down  to  five 
or  six  feet — the  yield  being  greater,  while  the  berry  is 
much  easier  to  harvest.  The  young  plants  are  usually 
grown  from  the  seed  in  nurseries,  and  when  a  year  old 
are  transplanted  to  such  localities  as  desired.  The 
tree,  in  favorable  climates,  begins  to  bear  fruit  at  three 
years,  but  hardly  in  paying  quantities  until  the  fifth 
year.  From  this  age  the  plant  bears  from  two  to  three 
crops  per  annum  for  twenty  years,  after  which  the  yield 
is  hardly  profitable,  when  the  older  trees  are  replaced 
Avith  younger  plants. 

The  fruit  of  the  coffee  tree  greatly  resembles  the 
cherry,  in  size  and  color,  when  ripe  ;  the  cofiee,  as  we 
see  it  in  commerce,  beine  the  seeds,  of  which  there  are 
two  to  each  berry.  The  kernels  are  extracted,  after 
the  fruit  is  thoroughly  dried,  by  being  passed  through 
wooden  rollers,  which  crush  and  separate  the  hull  from 
the  grains. 

The  best  coffee  is  Mocha,  grown  in  the  province 
of  Yemen,  in  Arabia;  that  from  Java  taking  second 
place.  Brazil  is  credited  with  producing  something 
over  half  of  all  the  coffee  consumed  in  the  world,  al- 
though the  qualit}'  is  not  equal  to  Mocha  or  Java.  It 
is  a  little  difficult  to  judge  of  the  brands  of  coffee  of- 
fered in  the  markets  nowadays,  as  much  that  is  grown 
in  outside  districts,  and  of  an  inferior  quality,  is  shipped 
to   Mocha   and   other  leading  districts,  and  re-shipped 


po  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

under   the    brands  -of  die  best  products  from  those 
places. 

Little  is  known  of  the  early  history  of  coffee,  al- 
though we  read  of  its  being  used  as  a  beverage  in 
Ethiopia  as  early  as  A.  D.  875.  At  a  more  modern 
period,  we  note  its  introduction  into  Arabia  from  Af- 
rica— in  the  fifteenth  century — and  in  Venice  in  161 5, 
and  in  England  in  about  1640.  It  was  first  introduced 
into  Java  by  the  Dutch  between  1680  and  1690. 

BORNEO. 

This  great  island,  whose  area  exceeds  284,000 
square  miles,  lying  on  either  side  of  the  equator,  be- 
tween latitude  7  deg.  10  min.  north  and  3  deg.  40  min. 
south,  and  between  longitudes  109  deg.  30  min.  and 
118  deg.  30  min.  east,  is  the  third  in  size  among  the 
islands  of  the  Pacific. 

The  population  is  about  three  millions.  There 
are  many  beautiful  bays  and  inlets  along  its  two  thou- 
sand miles  of  coast  line,  although  navigation  is  made 
exceedingly  dangerous  by  the  many  islets  and  rocks 
that  dot  the  sea  along  its  shores.  Beautiful  rivers 
traverse  Borneo,  winding  through  its  valley  and  plains, 
and  are  in  most  cases  broad,  navigable  streams.  Forty 
of  this  character  are  already  known. 

Great  ranges  of  mountains  rib  the  island  here  and 
there,  some  of  them  towering  nearly  14,000  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  sea. 


TOPOGRAPHY. 

Physically  speaking,    Borneo   may    be   described 
as  one  immense  forest,  generally  of  moderate  elevation 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  gi 

— that  is,  300  to  700  feet — traversed  by  great  rivers, 
which  descend  from  a  central  group  of  mountains,  and 
surrounded  by  wide  alkivial  plains,  edged  with  man- 
grove swamps,  or  broken  up  into  low  deltas,  constant- 
ly subject  to  inundation.  It  has,  therefore,  a  physical 
character  distinct  from  that  of  Java  or  Sumatra.  Its 
plains  are  of  much  greater  extent,  and  its  mountains, 
on  an  average,  do  not  attain  the  same  elevation. 

From  northeast  to  southwest  extends  a  chain  of 
mountains,  nearly  parallel  to,  but  at  a  great  distance 
from,  the  west  coast,  which,  in  or  near  latitude  3  cleg, 
north,  curves  around,  to  terminate  at  Cape  Sipang. 
From  this  chain  a  short  spur  projects,  and  links  it  to 
a  double  rangre  of  lesser  heig-ht,  one  of  which  runs 
southwest  to  a  point  near  Cape  Sambas,  while  the 
other  pursues  an  irregular  southeastern  direction  and 
reaches  Cape  Salatan.  The  culminating  point  of  the 
first-named  chain  is  Kinibulu,  13,680  feet  in  height. 
This  is  the  loftiest  summit  on  the  island,  and  on  the 
east  side  of  it  lies  a  great  lake,  the  source  of  numer- 
ous rivers. 

The  other  important  peaks  are  Kamangting,  in 
the  southwest  chain — 6, 500 feet;  Lunangi,  in  the  south- 
east, 6,300  feet;  Meratoo,  also  in  the  southeast,  4,000; 
Batang-Loopar,  east  of  Sarawak,  4,000;  Krimbangand 
Saramboo,  both  south  of  Sarawak,  3,250  and  3,000. 
respectively ;  and  Santibong,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river 
Sarav/ak,  2,050  feet.  Thus  It  is  evident  that  the  gen- 
eral elevation  of  the  island  is  not  considerable.  If  it 
were  sunk  five  himdred  feet,  at  least  four-fifths  of  its 
area  would  disappear,  leaving  several  long  peninsulas, 
of  tolerable  breadth,  divided  by  broad  ocean  channels, 
and  relieved  by  solitary  mountain  peaks  rising  here 
and  there  above  the  waters.     If  sunk   one  thousand 


92  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

feet,  nothing  would  remain  but  a  few  of  these  penin- 
sulas ;  the  ocean  ways  would  be  broader,  and  the 
mountain  peaks  wider  apart. 

RIVERS. 

We  come  now  to  the  rivers  of  Borneo.  In  most 
countries  the  configuration  of  the  surface  is  determined 
by  the  course  of  one  principal  river,  or  it  is  defined  by 
the  basins  of  two  or  three  main  streams.  Thus,  Ger- 
many is  marked  out  by  the  basin  of  the  Rhone  and 
Loire ;  Egypt,  by  the  valley  of  the  Nile.  So  far  as  our 
knowledge  of  Borneo  at  present  extends,  it  offers  us 
no  such  assistance  in  surveying  and  laying  down  its 
superficial  area.  Its  rivers  are  mostly  tidal,  but  their 
basins  seem  to  be  very  narrow,  and  they  descend  lan- 
guidly and  slowly  through  vast  level  deltas,  which 
merge  into  inundated  plains. 

The  littoral  or  shore  country  on  the  north  and 
northwest,  a  comparatively  level  tract  about  six  hun- 
dred miles  in  length,  is  watered  by  a  perfect  network 
of  rivers,  though  probably  not  one  of  them  Exceeds  a 
hundred  and  fifty  miles  in  its  full  career.  They  rise 
from  the  range  of  mountains  of  which  Kinibulu  is  the 
culminating  summit,  and  their  course  being  short,  are 
more  rapid  than  those  in  any  other  part  of  the  island. 
Some  of  them  presence  their  fresh  water  character 
down  to  the  very  coast. 

Tracing  them  from  the  north,  we  may  notice,  first, 
the  River  Brunai  (Borneo),  a  broad  sheet  of  water, 
navigable  for  some  distance  by  large  ships.  Next,  the 
Binbula  and  the  Judal,  both  of  which  are  considerable 
streams.  Passing  Cape  Sinik,  we  observe  the  mouths 
of  the  Rejang,  which,  at  eighty  miles  from  its  mouth, 
is  one  mile  wide.     Still  larger  than  these  is  the  noble 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN 


93 


Butong-Lupai,  which  measures  nearly  five  miles  across, 
and  can  Hoat  a  larfje  friofate.  The  Sarawak,  famous  in 
the  annals  of  English  enterprise,  is  not  so  remarkable 
for  its  lenofth  or  breadth  as  for  its  numerous  branches, 
which  ramify  in  such  a  manner  as  to  afford  to  an  exten- 
sive district  all  the  advantao'es  of  water  communication. 

South  of  the  equator  we  find  the  IMejak,  the  Sam- 
bas and  the  Kapooas.  The  first  named  was  ascended 
by  a  Dutch  steamer,  as  far  as  Malu.  in  March,  1855. 
The  last  named  is  one  of  the  chief  rivers  on  the  island 
— perhaps  the  chief — measuring-  not  less  than  seven 
hundred  miles  in  its  sinuous  course. 

On  the  south  coast  we  notice  the  Djelli,  the  Pern- 
buan,  the  Medawi,  the  Great  Dayak,  the  Little  Dayak, 
the  Kahajau,  the  Murong,  and  the  Bangermassin,  or 
Burdo.  This  last  is  connected  by  several  arms  with 
the  Murong  on  the  west,  and  thence  again  with  the 
Kahajau  ;  so  that  a  water-way  penetrates  into  the  very 
heart  ot  the  interior.  In  the  lower  part  of  its  course 
it  is  continually  overfiowing  the  country,  as  its  name 
indicates — Bangermassin  ("frequent  floods").  In  the 
upper  part  it  is  called  the  Dooson,  or  village  river,  be- 
cause its  banks  are  occupied  by  several  agricultural 
communities.  It  is  fed  on  the  east  by  the  Xagara,  a 
river  which  in  itself  is  of  considerable  importance. 

On  the  east  coast  the  rivers  are  not  so  laro-e.  nor 
so  numerous,  but  we  notice  the  Kooti,  with  its  wide 
delta,  extending  over  one  hundred  miles  of  coast.  It 
was  ascended  by  Major  Muller,  a  Dutch  officer,  in 
1825,  and  he  had  succeeded  in  crossing  the  mountains 
and  descending  into  the  valley  of  the  Kapooas,  when 
he  was  murdered  by  the  Dyaks.  Further  to  the  north 
lies  the  Pantai,  or  river  of  Beron. 

(Adams's  Eastern  Arcliipelaji^o.) 


g4  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

VEGETABLE    AND    ANIMAL    KINGDOM. 

The  soil  of  Borneo  is  very  fertile,  producing  all 
that  has  made  Sumatra  and  Java  so  famous.  The 
flora  is  extensive  and  varied,  the  forests  abounding  in 
all  the  valuable  woods  and  plants  of  the  tropics,  while 
the  cultivation  of  the  rattan,  bamboo,  banana,  betel 
nut,  cocoanut,  bread-fruit,  sugar-cane,  tobacco,  cotton, 
lemon,  orange,  clove,  rice,  nutmeg,  ginger  and  opium 
poppy  are  but  a  portion  of  the  valuable  products.  The 
sago  and  date-palm,  the  ebony,  gutta  percha,  toa,  to- 
mano,  prima  vera,  sandal,  camphor  and  cinnamon  trees 
adorn  the  forests. 

The  animal  and  mineral  kingdoms  are  well  repre- 
sented ;  the  former  embracing  the  elephant  and  hippo- 
potami, the  rhinoceros,  tiger  and  panther,  the  ourang- 
utan  and  the  different  species  of  the  monkey  tribe, 
roam  through  the  vast  forests  or  prowl  among  the 
iunofles.  In  the  latter  kino-dom  we  find  grold,  silver, 
lead,  antimony,  tin,  iron  and  coal.  The  beds  of  many 
of  the  streams  teem  with  that  valuable  "fem,  the  dia- 
mond,  mining  for  which  has  formed  one  of  the  indus- 
tries on  this  island  for  acres. 

Nor  are  the  reptilian,  finny  or  feathered  species 
without  an  extensive  representation.  The  swamps, 
morasses  and  forests  are  the  homes  of  the  great  py- 
thon, descending  the  scale  through  numerous  species 
to  the  little  coralilla,  whose  bite  is  certain  death.  The 
seas,  rivers  and  bays  teem  with  fish  of  all  the  species 
known  in  the  tropics.  Birds  of  the  most  beautiful  and 
valuable  plumage  abound  in  the  forest,  while  an  end- 
less variety  of  the  aquatic  kind  frequent  the  pools, 
lakes  and  rivers. 


OF   THE  PACIFIC   OCEAN  gj 

DIAMOND    MIXING 

One  of  the  most  \aluable  industries  on  the 
island  of  Borneo  is  diamond  minino- — a  business  fol- 
lowed  in  some  countries  for  ages  past.  Borneo  is  not 
alone  in  her  diamond-fields,  as  Sumatra,  Australia  and 
Tasmania  have  furnished  some  valuable  eems.  One 
found  in  the  southwestern  portion  of  Borneo,  in  the 
district  of  Mattan,  and  now  in  possession  of  the  rajah 
of  that  region,  weighs  367  carats,  and  is  valued  at 
something  over  ^1,000,000. 

Golconda,  a  district  between  Cape  Cormorin  and 
the  Bay  of  Bengal,  has  been  a  celebrated  diamond- 
field  for  ages  past.  Tavenier  described  a  gem  found 
in  this  region  and  taken  possession  of  by  the  Great 
Mogul,  as  weighing  900  carats. 

The  diamond-fields  oi  Brazil,  located  in  the  .Sierra 
de  Frio,  in  the  province  of  Minas  Geraes,  were  dis- 
covered in  1728.  A  gem  found  here,  and  now  be- 
lonoino-  to  the  kino-  of  Portug-al.  weighs  1,680  carats, 
valued  by  some  experts  at  the  modest  sum  of  $28,- 
000.000.  As  a  carat  in  diamond  weight  is  equal  to 
the  150th  part  of  an  ounce  Troy,  and  nearly  the  137th 
part  of  an  averdupois  ounce,  we  have  in  this  diamond 
a  gem  weighing  nearly  a  pound  Troy,  and  al^out  four- 
fifths  of  a  pound  averdupois. 

Brazil  was  for  many  years  the  principal  diamond 
mining  country,  furnishing  stones  of  great  beauty  and 
in  great  numbers  to  the  world.  In  1868  they  were  dis- 
covered in  South  Africa,  where  the  district  as  far  as 
known  contains  an  area  of  17,000  square  miles. 
Many  of  the  diamonds  from  this  locality  are  of  a 
yellowish  cast,  and  not  near  so  valuable  as  those 
found   in  other  countries.     The    largest   stone   found 


g6  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

here  was  the  Stewart,- weighing   288)^    carats,  and  of 
fine  quahty. 

They  are  found  in  many  other  countries — in  the  Ural 
Mountains ;  in  Hindostan ;  and  in  the  United  States,  in 
North  Carohna,  Georgia,  Virginia  and  Cahfornia. 

In  addition  to  those  already  mentioned,  the  fame 
of  the  Kohinoor,  of  England,  weighing  279  carats; 
the  Orloff,  of  Russia,  195  carats;  the  Regent,  or  Pitt, 
136^  ;  and  the  Sanci,  106  carats,  is  world  wide. 

Previous  to  the  15th  century  the  gems  were  worn 
in  the  rough,  just  as  they  came  from  the  mines,  and 
of  course  lacked  the  brilliancy  given  to  them  by  cut- 
ting and  polishing.  This  art  was  discovered  by 
Louis  von  Bergnen,  in  the  above  century,  and  gave 
to  the  diamond  a  value  unequalled  by  any  other  gem. 

Its  uses  in  frlass-cuttinof  and  in  the  manufacture 
of  diamond-drills,  for  minin'^'  purposes,  are  so  well 
known  as  to  require  no  description  here. 

In  mining  for  diamonds  similar  processes  to  those 
in  use  in  placer  mining  for  gold  are  resorted  to.  They 
are  found  just  below  the  later  alluvial  dept)sits,  inter- 
mixed in  the  stratum  of  gravel,  clay  and  rolled  quartz 
lying  over  the  bed-rock,  once  forming  the  Ijeds  of 
streams  and  gravel  deposits.  Prom  this  deposit  the 
stratum  is  washed  through  sluices  with  an  abundance  of 
water,  the  diamonds  beinof  found  amon^r  the  heavier 
particles  remaining  in  the  sluices  after  the  washing. 

The  standard  for  valuing  diamonds,  presuming 
that  they  are  of  fair  quality,  is  to  multiply  the  square 
of  the  weight  in  carats  by  the  value  per  carat.  Tak- 
ing the  Kohinoor,  for  example:  weight  279  carats, 
squared,  would  equal  77,844,  which  multiplied  by  the 
value,  assuming  it  to  be  |,20  per  carat,  would  give 
$1,556,820. 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN 


97 


This  amount  would  be  its  presumable  value  in 
the  weight  given,  although  that  was  reduced  by  cut- 
ting and  polishing  to  i86,  and  by  still  another  cutting 
and  polishing,  which  brought  the  weight  down  to  io6 
carats. 


9S  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 


CHAPTER  VII 


ISL,AI«DS. 


A  fleet  descry'd 
Hangs  in  the  clouds,  by  equinoctial  winds 
Close  sailing  from  Bengala,  or  the  isles 
Of  Ternate  and  Tidore,  where  merchants  bring 
Their  spicy  drugs. 

Milton  {Paradise  Lost.) 

SUMATRA. 

TAXTENDING  in  an  oblique  direction,  to  thenorth- 
'Ty  west,  lying  almost  immediately  under  the  equator, 
running  from  latitude  6  deg.  lo  min.,  south  to 
5  deg.  40  min.  north,  and  between  longitudes  95  deg. 
10  min.  and  107  deg.  10  min.  east,  is  located  the 
island  of  Sumatra.  Twenty  to  thirty  islands  along 
the  greater  one's  shores  could  be  enumerated,  but 
are  of  no  special  importance  at  present.  Next  to 
Borneo  in  size,  having  an  area  of  about  160,000 
square  miles,  with  4,500,000  people,  Sumatra  is  a 
garden-spot,  unsurpassed  in  valuable  productions,  ex- 
cept perhaps  by  Java. 

Its  position  is  easily  remembered.  Its  northern 
portion  is  separated  from  the  Malayan  peninsula  on 
the  east  by  the  Strait  of  Mallaca  ;  on  the  west  it  is 
bounded  by  the  Indian   Ocean ;    on    the    south   it   is 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  gg 

divided  from  Java  by  the  narrow  arm  of  the  sea  called 
the  Strait  of  Sunda. 

TOPOGRAPHY. 

The  eastern  portion  of  the  island  is  remarkable 
for  its  continuous  levels,  which  are  freely  watered  by 
several  large  but  sluggish  rivers — the  Rawas,  the 
Jambi,  the  Indgari — that  form  extensive  deltas  at 
their  mouths,  and  have  for  ages  been  contributing  to 
fill  up  the  shallow  sea,  into  which  they  fall.  Very  dif- 
ferent in  character  the  western  portion.  Here,  from 
northwest  to  southwest,  stretch  range  upon  range  of 
mountains,  all  running  parallel  to  the  coast,  and  in- 
creasing in  elevation  from  2,000  to  5,000  feet.  These 
are  broken  up  by  short  latteral  valleys,  and  again  by 
extensive  longitudinal  valleys,  clothed  with  the  fig  and 
the  myrtle,  the  arica  and  nibon  palms.  The  littoral 
belt,  or  shore-land,  varies  greatly  in  breadth.  On  the 
southwest  side  of  the  island  the  mountains  seem  to 
start  up  directly  from  the  ocean,  and  for  nearly  400 
miles  the  distance  between  the  beach  and  the  wooded 
base  of  the  hills  is  two  miles,  though  towards  the 
north  it  widens  on  the  average  to  six  miles,  and  at  a 
few  points  to  twelve  miles. 

ANIMAL   LIFE. 

The  reader  will  easily  understand  that  the  scenery 
in  the  western  division  of  the  island  presents  many 
romantic  features.  The  mountain  peaks  rising  so 
abruptly  from  the  shore,  and  clothed  with  hanging 
woods,  are  necessarily  objects  of  much  grandeur;  and 
intersecting  valleys,  enriched  with  a  tropical  vegeta- 
tion, the  forms   and    colors  of  which  have  a  rare  at- 


loo  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

traction  for  the  eye  of  the  traveler,  are  characterized 
by  numerous  landscapes  of  great  splendor.  The  in- 
terior of  the  island  is  but  imperfectly  known ;  but  one 
of  these  valleys,  stretching  up  to  the  foot  of  Mount 
Merapi,  is  fully  loo  miles  in  length,  and  is  regarded 
by  some  authorities  as  the  original  home  of  the 
Malayan  race.  Birds  of  bright  tinted  plumage  dart 
in  and  out  of  the  thick  boughs  of  the  wide-spreading 
woodland,  and  blend  their  voices,  often  harsh  and 
shrill,  with  the  murmur  of  falling  streams.  Here  in 
the  virgin  forest  the  agile  monkey  leajDs  from  branch 
to  branch ;  or  the  siawang,  with  his  immense  long 
arms,  five  feet  six  inches  across  in  an  adult  about 
three  feet  high,  swings  himself  with  wonderful  rapidity 
from  tree  to  tree.  Here,  in  the  remote  recesses, 
the  ourang-utan  live  its  melancholy  life;  the  rhinoc- 
eros wades  in  the  shallow  streams,  and  the  elephant 
crashes  through  the  jungle  with  colossal  bulk.   '•'    '^'    '•■ 

P^LORA. 

Turninor  to  the  vesfetable  wealth  of  this  ereat 
island,  we  meet  with  the  most  valuable  productions  of 
the  tropical  world.  In  the  forest  the  huge  trees,  co- 
lossal in  crirth  and  of  noble  heigfht,  are  linked  to- 
gether  and  surrounded  by  innumerable  parasites  and 
creeping  plants,  often  of  great  beauty,  which  inter- 
lace with  one  another  so  as  to  form  an  almost  im- 
pervious labyrinth.  On  the  shore  we  meet  with  the 
spreading  mangrove,  its  pendulous  roots  closely 
matted  and  intertwined,  forming  an  incomparable 
breakwater,  and  stemmino-  the  aofsfressive  tide.  Re- 
taining  the  particles  of  earth  that  sink  to  the  bottom 
between    them,  they  gradually,  but   surely  elevate  the 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  loi 

level  of  the  soil,  and  as  the  new  formation  rises  and 
broadens,  a  thousand  seeds  are  sown  upon  it,  a  thou- 
sand fresh  roots  descend  to  strengthen  and  consoli- 
date it;  and  in  this  way  the  mangrove  repels  the 
wave  and  asserts  the  supremacy  of  the  land  over  the 
baffled  sea.     '='     '''     '^ 

On  the  mountain  slopes,  from  an  altitude  of  five 
hundred  to  that  of  six  thousand  feet,  the  forest  is 
largely  composed  of  oaks  of  several  species.  They 
are  noble  trees,  and  of  much  value  ;  but  in  a  commer- 
cial sense  a  higher  value  attaches  to  the  Dryanobalops, 
which  yields  the  all-important  camphor.  About  one 
degree  below  the  equator,  its  place  is  occupied  by  the 
Diptiiocarpus,  a  tree  of  gigantic  proportions,  which 
produces  the  resin  called  "dammar." 

On  the  rough  bark  of  many  of  the  forest  trees 
grows  that  extraordinary  parasite,  the  Rafflesia,  the 
largest  known  flower,  measuring  fully  three  feet  in 
diameter,  and  expanding  a  calyx  which  is  capable  of 
holding  six  quarts  of  water. 

The  principal  exports  of  Sumatra  are  capsicums, 
ginger,  betel,  tobacco,  indigo,  cotton,  camphor,  benzoin, 
cassia  or  common  cinnamon,  rattans,  ebony,  sandal- 
wood, teak  and  aloes,  ivory,  rice,  wax,  and  edible  birds' 
nests.  To  the  list  of  the  island  products  must  be  added 
rice,  maize,  sweet  potatoes,  taro,  banana,  mango,  du- 
rian,  pawpaw  and  citron.  But  even  this  enumeration 
gives  but  a  faint  idea  of  the  variety  and  extent  of  'ts 
natural  treasures. 

CLIMATE. 

Its  climate  is  well  adapted  to  the  growth  of  so 
luxuriant  a  vegetation.  Lying  directly  under  the  equa- 
tor, the  island  enjoys  great  equability  of  temperature. 


I02  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

the  thermometer  seldom  falling  below  76  deg.  or  rising 
above  93  deg.  The  constant  rains  brought  up  by  the 
southeast  monsoons  counteract  or  mitigate  the  prevail- 
ing heat.  In  the  highlands  and  mountain  districts  the 
climate  is  healthy,  and  the  natives  attain  a  considerable 
longevity ;  but  in  the  low  ground  along  the  coast,  and 
in  the  neighborhood  of  the  mangrove  swamps,  Euro- 
peans, at  least,  drag  on  a  sickly  existence,  and  malaria 
exercises  its  deadly  ravages. 

The  principal  cities  are  Padang  (the  capital),  Ben- 
coolen  and  Palambang. 

INHABITANTS. 

The  inhabitants  of  Sumatra  are  mostly  of  the 
great  Malayan  family,  but  in  the  north  they  seem  to 
have  intercrossed  with  the  Hindus,  and  are  distin- 
guished by  their  strength,  their  stature  and  their  fierce 
couraofe.  The  Chinese  are  numerous  on  the  east 
coast.  North  of  Menangkabu,  where  the  pure  Malays 
reside,  live  the  Battahs  or  Batakhs,  whose  exact  relation 
to  the  Malay  it  seems  impossible  to  determine.  They 
approximate,  in  many  respects,  to  the  Caucasian  type, 
with  fair  complexion,  brown  or  auburn  hair,  well-shaped 
lips  and  an  ample  forehead.  All  the  natives  of  Sumat- 
ra, with  the  exception  of  some  inland  tribes,  profess  a 
modified  Mohammedanism. 

In  Sumatra  we  find  about  fifteen  volcanoes,  four 
of  which — Dempo  (10,440  feet),  Indrapura  (12,140), 
Talang  (8,480),  and  Merapi  (9,700  feet) — are  of  con- 
siderable importance ;  the  others  do  not  exceed  six  or 

seven  thousand  feet  in  elevation. 

» 

(Notes  from  Adams's  Eastern  Archipelago.) 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  103 

SINGAPORE. 

This  little  island,  located  between  latitude  i  deg. 
and  I  deg.  32  min.  north,  and  longitude  103  deg.  30 
min.  and  104  deg.  10  min.  east,  has  long  been  cele- 
brated for  its  many  valuable  products,  being  more 
widely  known  than  almost  any  other  island  in  the  East. 
Situated  at  the  eastern  extremity  of  the  Straits  of  Mal- 
lacca,  it  has  long  formed  the  distributing  point  for  the 
products  of  these  regions. 

The  town  of  Singapore  has  about  100,000  inhab- 
itants— Malays,  Hindoos  and  Chinese — and  is  located 
a  mile  or  so  back  from  the  straits,  in  the  mouth  of  a 
river ;  the  freight  to  and  from  the  town  being  handled 
by  lighters. 

The  island  itself  has  an  area  of  about  220  square 
miles,  and  is  surrounded  by  about  fifty  small  islets,  of 
no  great  commercial  importance  in  the  past  or  present 
as  distributing  points,  yet  the  fisheries,  the  turtle,  tor- 
toise and  bccJie  de  mer,  found  on  some  of  these  little  des- 
ert spots,  are  considerable.  The  whole  area,  including 
the  islets,  may  be  estimated  at  400  square  miles.  The 
British  hoisted  their  flag  over  Singapore  in  18 19,  but  it 
was  not  till  1824,  when  the  main  island,  with  the  adjoining 
isles  located  within  ten  miles  of  the  shores  of  Singa- 
pore, were  ceded  to  the  East  India  Company  by  the 
Malayan  princes,  that  Singapore  sprang  into  commer- 
cial importance. 

The  Straits  of  Mallacca  narrow  down  at  one  point 
to  a  quarter  of  a  mile  in  width  between  the  island  and 
the  Malayan  Peninsula.  In  some  respects  this  is  un- 
fortunate for  the  inhabitants  of  Singapore,  as  one  of 
the  favorite  methods  of  the  tiger,  the  great  man-eater 
of  the  East  Indies,  is  to  swim  this  channel  from  the. 


I04  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

mainland  and  make  a  meal  off  of  a  native.  It  has  been 
estimated  that  Singapore  loses  one  inhabitant  a  day  in 
supplying  this  demand. 

CELEBES. 

Between  the  parallels  of  latitude  i  deg.  45  min. 
north  and  5  deg.  52  min.  south,  and  the  meridians  of 
longitude  118  deg.  45  min,  and  125  deg.  17  min.  east, 
lies  an  island  of  the  most  extraordinary  configuration, 
which  some  writers  compare  to  a  tarantula  spider,  oth- 
ers to  a  couple  of  horse-shoes  joined  at  the  fore  parts. 
Neither  comparison  is  very  accurate.  It  consists  of 
four  long  peninsulas — the  largest  being  the  northern- 
most— of  which  two  are  directed  eastward,  with  a  deep 
gulf  between  them  (the  Tomini  Gulf),  and  two  others 
southward,  with  the  Boni  Gulf  separating  them  from 
each  other,  while  the  first  of  the  two  is  separated  from 
the  second  of  the  other  two  by  the  Tolo  Gulf  These 
four  peninsulas  project  from  a  narrow  neck  of  land 
which  runs  due  north  and  south. 

The  peninsula  of  Menado,  the  first  of  the  four 
peninsulas,  sweeps  north,  then  east,  and  lastly  north- 
east, with  a  length  of  400  miles  and  a  breadth  of  1 2  to 
60  miles.  That  of  Bulante,  east,  is  160  miles  long  and 
from  30  to  95  miles  broad  ;  the  southeast  peninsula  is 
about  1 50  miles  by  30  to  90  miles  ;  and  the  southwest 
(that  of  Macassar)  forms  a  tolerably  regular  parallelo- 
gram, 200  miles  long  and  65  miles  broad.  They  are 
all  formed  of  mountain  masses,  and  describe  a  kind  of 
backbone,  150  miles  long  and  105  miles  broad. 

The  Gulf  Tomini  or  Gorontala,  on  the  northeast, 
is  240  miles  long,  and  from  55  miles  at  its  mouth  it 
broadens,  as  it  strikes  inland,  to  fully  100  miles  ;  that 


OF   THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  105 

of  Tomaiki,  or  Tolo,  on  the  ease,  is  of  ample  dimensions 
at  its  mouth,  but  narrows  towards  its  upper  extremity ; 
and  that  of  Macassar  or  Boni,  on  the  south,  is  proba- 
bly upwards  of  200  miles  in  length,  with  a  width  vary- 
ing from  35  to  80  miles. 

Apart  from  these  conspicuous  indentations,  the 
coast  line  is  broken  up  by  numerous  bays,  such  as 
those  of  Meuado,  Amoorang,  Kwandang  and  Tontoli, 
on  the  north  ;  Palos  and  Panepane  on  the  west,  and 
Bulante,  Tolowa,  Nipa-Nipa  and  Staring  on  the  east. 

To  sum  up,  we  have  an  island  of  Celebes,  150 
miles  long  and  105  miles  broad,  throwing  off  four  pe- 
ninsulas of  varying  magnitude  ;  the  superficial  area  of 
the  whole  island  being  estimated  at  71,791  square 
miles. 

We  might  conjecture  that  an  island  so  exposed 
to  the  sea  breezes  would  be  visited  by  abundant  mois- 
ture, and  being  included  in  the  tropic  zone,  and  imme- 
diately under  the  equator,  would  necessarily  present  a 
vegetation  of  remarkable  richness  and  variety.  Such, 
indeed,  is  the  case,  and  Celebes  has  fair  claims  to  be 
regarded  as  the  loveliest  and  most  bounteous  of  all 
the  islands  of  the  Eastern  Archipelago.  Its  scenery 
combines  every  charm  that  can  gratify  an  artist  or  in- 
spire a  poet ;  it  has  the  immense  forests  of  Corneo  and 
the  meadows  and  vales  of  England ;  the  exuberant 
wealth  of  the  tropics,  and  the  gentleness  and  grace 
that  distinguish  the  regions  of  the  temperate  zone. 

Broad  rivers,  lofty  heights,  far-spreading  w^oods, 
deep,  bowery  hollows,  immense  breadths  of  fragrant 
greensward — it  has  all  these,  mingled  with  rare  and 
beautiful  forms  of  vegetation,  and  enlivened  by  glori- 
ous displays  of  color,  which  give  to  each  bright,  strange 
landscape  an  individuality  of  its  own.     To  all  this  add 


io6  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

a  fresh  and  healthy  climate,  which  neither  enfeebles  the 
mind  nor  undermines  the  physical  health,  and  it  may 
be  conceded  that  Celebes  is  an  enchanted  land. 

(Adams's  Eastern  Archipelago.) 


SANGIR    GROUP. 

North  of  Celebes,  between  latitude  2  deg.  and  4 
deg.,  is  the  Sangir  group,  about  fifty  in  number,  with 
an  area  of  1,500  square  miles,  and  a  population  of 
30,000.  Like  many  of  the  islands  and  groups  in  these 
seas,  they  are  afflicted  with  the  eruptic  volcano,  whose 
destructive  ravages  are  to  be  seen  on  every  hand.  At 
Great  Sangir,  the  largest  island  of  the  group,  having 
an  area  of  some  300  square  miles,  we  find,  in  the 
northwest  portion,  the  active  volcano  of  Abu.  In 
March,  1856,  a  fearful  outburst  took  place  here;  the 
burning  lava,  boiling  water,  scoria  and  ashes  laid 
waste  the  surrounding  country,  destroying  towns  and 
villages,  sweeping  over  the  fine  plantations,  leaving 
all  within  reach  a  vast,  burning,  smoking  waste. 

If  this  were  all  to  relate  of  this  eruption,  it  could 
be  passed  over  with  barely  a  glance ;  but  when  the  sad 
fate  of  three  thousand  people,  who  lost  their  lives, 
cauMit  in  the  burning  lava  or  in  floods  of  boilinof  water, 
or  smothered  in  clouds  of  sulphurous  smoke  and  ashes, 
is  added,  it  darkens  the  history  of  these  island  regions 
like  a  funeral  pall. 

This  island  group  produces  nearly  all  of  the  trop- 
ical products  in  the  greatest  abundance.  With  a  fer- 
tile soil,  made  beautiful  by  an  industrious  people,  they 
appear  like  gems  dotting  the  southern  seas.  But,  like 
the  neighboring  isles,  they  lie  over  the  track  of  the 
great  eruptic  fire-belt,  whose  terrible  outbursts  too  fre- 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  107 

quently  devastate  the   lands  and  convulse  the  founda- 
tions of  the  deep. 

MOLLUCCA    ISLANDS, 

The  name  Molluccas  is  employed  in  a  restricted, 
and  also  in  a  comprehensive  or  general  sense.  It  is 
applied,  in  the  first  place,  to  the  Royal  Islands,  lying 
off  the  western  coast  of  Gilolo,  and  washed  by  the 
Molluccas  Passage,  which  separates  Gilolo  from  Cele- 
bes. In  a  wider  sense,  the  name  Molluccas  is  applied 
to  all  the  islands  or  groups  of  islands  lying  between 
Celebes  and  New  Guinea.  They  are  commonly  divi- 
ded, according  to  the  three  residencies,  into  the  Ter- 
nate,  Amboyna  and  Banda  groups,  which  contain,  re- 
spectively, the  following  principal  islands  : 

1 .  The  Tematc  Islands,  including  the  Molluccas 
proper — comprehending  Ternate,  Gilolo,  Batchian, 
Obi.  Mortui,  and  the  Kaiva  Islands  ; 

2.  TJic  Amboyna  Islands,  including  Amboyna, 
Ceram,  Bouru,  Goram,  Amblau,  and  some  smaller 
isles  ;  and 

3.  The  Banda  Islands,  including  Great  Banda  or 
Luthoir,  Banda  Neira,  Pulo  Run,  Pulo  Ai,  Goenong 
Api,  Rosengyn,  Kapal,  Pisang,  Spethau  and  Vronwen. 

These  numerous  islands  are  all  mountainous  and 
mostly  volcanic,  and  their  forms  of  animal  and  vege- 
table life  exhibit  but  few  and  unimportant  differences. 
They  may,  therefore,  be  properly  comprehended  un- 
der the  one  general  title  of  the  Molluccas. 

We  shall  visit  them  in  the  following  order :  Banda 
and  adjacent  islands;  Amboyna,  Ceram,  Bouru,  Go- 
ram  ;  and  Ternate,  Gilolo,  Batchian  and  adjacent 
islands.     The  inhabitants  are   Molluccan-Malays,  and 


io8  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

their  religion  is  principally  Mohammedan.  *  *  * 
So  much  for  the  position  of  these  charming  islands, 
which  escaping  the  dry  winds  that  blow  over  the 
Australian  deserts,  are  remarkable  for  their  fresh 
greenery  and  the  plentifulness  of  their  vegetation.. 

HISTORY. 

They  were  first  made  known  to  Europeans  by  the 
Portuguese  navigator,  D'Abreu.  but  the  Chinese 
and  Arabs,  and  probably  the  Hindoos,  had  long  pre- 
viously included  them  in  the  range  of  their  commer- 
cial enterprise.  D'Abreu,  according  to  the  chron- 
icler, DeBarros,  had  the  assistance  of  Javanese  and 
Malay  pilots  who  had  made  the  voyage ;  and  DeBarros 
adds,  that  every  year  Javanese  and  Malays  repaired 
to  Lulotain  (that  is.  Great  Banda)  to  load  cloves,  nut- 
megs and  mace,  for  it  lay  in  the  latitudes  most  easily 
navigated,  and  where  ships  were  most  secure,  and  as 
the  cloves  of  the  Molluccas  are  brought  thither  by 
vessels  belonging  to  those  islands,  it  was  unnecessary 
to  go  to  the  latter  for  the  much  prized  spices.  In  the 
five  islands,  says  DeBarros,  namely,  Louthoir,  Re- 
sengyn,  Pulo  Ai,  Pulo  Run  and  Banda  Neira,  grow 
all  the  nutmegs  consumed  in  every  part  of  the  world. 
He  gives  the  then  population  as  15,000 — a  very  much 
larger  number  than  at  present,  and  further  says  of 
them :  The  people  of  these  islands  are  robust,  with 
lank  hair  and  a  tawny  complexion,  and  are  of  the 
worst  repute  in  these  regions.  They  follow  the 
sect  of  Mohammed,  and  are  much  addicted  to  trade, 
their  women  performing  the  labors  of  the  field. 
They  have  neither  king  nor  lord,  and  all  their 
government  depends    on    the   advice  of  their  elders, 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  T09 

and    as    these    are    often    at   variance,    they   quarrel 
among  themselves. 

NUTMEG. 

The  land  has  no  other  export  than  the  nutmeg. 
This  tree  is  in  such  abundance  that  the  land  is  full 
of  it,  without  being  planted  by  any  one,  for  the  earth 
yields  without  culture.  The  forests  wdiich  produce  it 
belong  to  no  one  by  inheritance,  but  to  the  people  in 
common. 

For  about  a  century  the  Portuguese  monopolized 
the  commerce  of  these  islands,  and  throughout  this 
period  maintained  a  friendly  intercourse  with  the  na- 
tives. In  1609  the  Dutch,  however,  resolved  to  an- 
nex them  to  their  Eastern  possessions,  and  invaded 
Great  Banda  with  a  force  of  700  soldiers,  but  falling 
into  ambuscade,  were  compelled  to  retreat  with  con- 
siderable loss.  They  then  began  a  war  of  extermina- 
tion, which  was  prolonged  for  eighteen  years,  and 
brought  to  a  successful  issue  only  through  the  eflorts 
of  a  large  expedition  from  Java,  commanded  by  the 
Governor-General  in  person.  In  this  prolonged  strug- 
gle, the  natives,  who  fougfht  with  o^reat  couraije  and 
resolution,  lost  3,000  killed  and  1,000  prisoners.  The 
survivors  fled  to  the  neighboring  islands,  where  they 
were  merged  in  the  general  mass,  so  that  scarcely 
a  vestisfe  of  their  langruag-e  or  customs  is  now  known 
to  exist, 

LOUTHOIR. 

Of  the  little  island  group  of  Louthoir,  it  is  said 
that  beneath  the  shade  of  the  lofty  kanary  trees,  de- 
riving their  nourishment  from  the  thin  but  warm  vol- 
canic soil,  and  fed  by  the  constant  moisture,  the  hand- 


no  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

some  glossy-leaved  nutmeg  trees,  twenty  to  thirty  feet 
high^  line  the  roads  and  bloom  in  the  gardens  and 
spread  over  all  the  open  places.  They  are  very  fair 
to  look  upon,  with  their  thick-spreading  branches,  the 
tallest  sprays  of  which  are  fifty  feet  high.  The 
flowers  are  small  and  yellowish.  The  fruit,  before 
it  is  fully  ripe,  resembles  a  peach  that  has  not  yet 
been  tinted  with  red ;  but  this  is  only  the  epicarp,  or 
outer  rind,  which  is  of  a  tough  fleshy  consistence, 
and  on  maturing  splits  open  into  two  equal  parts, 
revealing  a  spherical,  polished,  dark-brown  nut,  en- 
veloped in  crimson  mace.  In  this  stage  it  may  be 
fairly  described  as  the  most  beautiful  fruit  in  the  cornu- 
copia of  Pomona. 

It  is  now  picked  by  means  of  a  small  basket  fas- 
tened to  the  end  a  long  bamboo.  The  epicarp  being 
removed,  the  mace  is  carefully  taken  off  and  dried  in 
the  sun,  which  changes  its  bright  crimson  to  an  ob- 
scure 3^ellow.  It  is  then  ready  to  be  packed  in  cakes 
and  shipped  to  market.  Next  the  nuts  are  spread  on 
a  shallow  tray  of  open  basket-work,  and  exposed  for 
a  period  of  three  months  to  the  action  of  a  slow  fire. 
By  the  end  of  that  time  the  actual  genuine  nutmeg 
has  so  shrunken  that  it  ratdes  in  its  dark-brown  shell. 
The  shell  is  broken,  and  the  nutmegs  after  being 
sorted,  are  packed  in  large  casks  of  teak-wood, 
which  are  duly  branded  with  the  year  in  which  the 
fruit  was  gathered  and  the  name  of  the  plantation 
where  it  was  grown. 

AMBOYNA. 

Mountains,  hills,  rocks,  forests,  noisy  burns  and 
rippling  brooks,  with  well  wooded  valleys  nmning  in 
among  the  highlands  and  low  fertile  country  stretch- 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  iii 

ing  along  the  shore.  Such  is  the  general  character 
qf  Amboyna.  It  is  not  one  of  the  fairest  or  richest 
islands  of  the  Archipelago ;  much  of  its  surface  is 
bare  and  barren,  and  it  presents  but  little  of  that  ex- 
uberant vegetation  which  we  are  accustomed  to  asso- 
ciate with  the  tropics.  In  fact,  it  owes  its  celebrity 
and  its  wealth  to  one  special  vegetable  product — the 
clove-tree — {caryopJiyllus  Aromaticus).  Such  being 
the  case,  and  groves  of  clove-trees,  with  their  bright 
green  verdure,  being  the  pleasantest  objects  in  the 
island,  before  we  go  further  it  will  be  well  for  us  to 
devote  some  attention  to  so  remarkable  a  source  of 
wealth. 

CLOVE. 

We  first  hear  of  cloves  in  Europe  about  a.  d. 
175-180,  in  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Aurelian,  when 
they  are  mentioned  as  imported  into  Alexandria  from 
India — the  Isthmus  of  Suez  and  the  Red  Sea  forminof 
then  as  now  the  great  highway  along  which  flowed 
the  traffic  of  the  East.  They  were  carried  by  the 
Javanese  and  Malays  from  the  Molluccas  to  the 
peninsula  of  Mallacca ;  thence  the  Telingas,  or 
Klings,  transported  them  to  Calicut,  the  once  famous 
capital  of  Malibar.  PVom  Calicut  they  passed  to  the 
western  shores  of  India,  and  crossing  the  Arabian  Sea, 
found  their  way  up  the  Red  Sea  to  the  Egyptian  port. 

The  native  name  for  this  fruit  is  chcnki,  which 
may  be  a  corruption  of  the  Chinese  theng-ki,  or 
•' sweet  smelling  nails."  The  resemblance  to  a  nail 
has  also  suggested  the  Dutch  name,  krind-nagel,  or 
"hub-nail"  (the  trees  are  iiagelen-boomen,  or  "nail- 
trees"),  and  the  Spanish  clavos  (Latin  clavus,  a  nail), 
whence  comes  our  Engrlish  "clove." 


112  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

The  clove  tree  belongs  to  the  order  of  Myrtles, 
which  includes  the  guava,  pomegranate  and  the  rose- 
apple.  Its  topmost  branches  are  usually  forty  or  fifty 
feet  from  the  ground,  and  the  full-grown  trunk  meas- 
ures eight  to  ten  inches  in  diameter.  It  was  originally 
confined,  says  Bickmore,  to  the  five  islands  off  the 
west  coast  of  Gilolo,  which  then  comprised  the  whole 
.group  known  as  the  Molluccas — a  name  that  has 
since  been  extended  to  Bouru,  Amboyna  and  the 
other  islands  off  the  south  coast  of  Ceram,  where  the 
clove  has  been  introduced  and  cultivated  within  a 
comparatively  late  period.  On  these  five  islands  it 
begins  to  bear  in  its  seventh  or  eighth  year,  and 
sometimes  continues  to  yield  until  it  has  reached  an 
age  of  nearlg  one  hundred  and  fifty  years  ;  the  trees, 
therefore,  are  of  very  different  sizes.  Here  at  Am- 
boyna it  is  not  expected  to  bear  fruit  before  its  twelfth 
or  fifteenth  year,  and  to  cease  yielding  when  it  is 
seventy-five  years  old. 

A  quaint  description  of  this  celebrated  tree  is 
given  by  Pigafetta,  who  accompanied  Magellan  in  his 
voyage  around  the  world:  It  attains  a  pretty  con- 
siderable height,  and  its  trunk  is  about  as  large  as  a 
man's  body,  varying  more  or  less  according  to  its 
age.  Its  branches  extend  very  wide  about  the  middle 
of  the  trunk,  but  at  the  summit  terminate  in  a  pyra- 
niid.  Its  leaf  resembles  that  of  the  laurel,  and  the 
bark  is  of  an  olive  color.  The  cloves  grow  at  the 
end  of  small  branches,  in  clusters  of  from  ten  to 
twenty,  and  the  tree,  according  to  the  season,  sends 
forth  more  on  one  side  than  the  other.  The  cloves 
at  first  are  white,  as  tliey  ripen  they  become  more 
reddish,  and  blacken  as  they  dry.     •'•     '•'     ■'• 

To  this  we  ma)-  add  that    the  buds  when   young 


-  S;^'\' 


i^MMMi.> . 


KMa 


mmA':-^ 


NATIVE  LUXURY  IN  THE  MOLUCCAS. 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  113 

arc  white,  afterwards  they  change  to  a  Hght  green, 
and  hnall)'  to  a  bright  red.  when  they  must  at  once 
be  gathered,  which  is  done  b)'  picking  them  by 
hand,  or  beating  them  off  with  bamboos,  so  that  they 
drop  in  showers  on  cloths  spread  l^eneath  the  trees. 
When  they  have  been  dried  in  the  sun — a  process 
which  changes  them  from  red  to  black — they  are 
ready  for  market.  Ihe  gathering  seasons  are  from 
June  to  December.  The  soil  best  adapted  to  the  tree 
seems  a  warm,  loose,  sandy  loam. 

CPIOCOLATE    BEAN. 

Another  of  the  valuable  products  of  this  group, 
as  others  of  the  Eastern  Archipelago,  is  the  cacao 
theobroma,  the  chocolate  bean  of  commerce.  It  is  not 
native  here,  but  is  one  of  the  few  things  which  the 
Orient  lias  borrowed  from  the  West.  The  Span- 
iards discovered  it  in  Mexico,  and  transplanted  it  to 
their  settlements  in  South  America  and  the  West 
Indies.  Thence  it  traveled  to  the  Molluccas.  It  is 
also  cultivated  in  Guinea  and  Brazil. 

The  cacao  tree  seldom  exceeds  twenty  feet  in 
height.  Its  leaves  are  large,  oblong  and  pointed  ;  its 
flowers  hang  in  pale  red  clusters,  not  only  from  its 
branches,  but  also  from  its  trunk  and  roots.  Hence 
a  cacao  plantation  has  a  singular  and  striking  appear- 
ance, as  Humboldt  did  not  fail  to  notice.  Never,  he 
says,  shall  I  forget  the  profound  impression  made 
on  my  mind  by  the  luxuriance  of  tropical  vegetation 
when  I  first  saw  a  cacao  garden.  After  a  damp  night, 
large  blossoms  of  the  theobroma  ("drink  for  gods!") 
issue  from  the  root  a  considerable  distance  from  the 
trunk,  emerging  'from  the  deep  black  mold.     A  more 


114  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

striking  example  of  the  expansive  powers  of  life  could 
hardly  be  met  with  in  organic  nature. 

The  fruits  are  large,  oval-pointed  pods,  about  five 
or  six  inches  long;-,  and  divided  into  five  lobes  or  com- 
partments,  containing  from  twenty  to  forty  seeds,  the 
cacao  of  commerce,  enveloped  in  a  white  pithy  sub- 
stance. 

In  localities  well  sheltered  from  the  wind  the 
grower  sows  his  seeds.  In  two  years  the  plant  at- 
tains a  height  of  three  feet,  and  throws  off  numerous 
branches,  all  of  which  are  removed,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  four  or  five.  In  the  third  year  i:ne  fruits  ap- 
pear, but  the  tree  does  not  yield  fully  until  six  or 
seven  years  old,  after  which  it  produces  abundant 
crops  for  upwards  of  two  decades. 

When  the  pods  are  first  picked  they  are  remarka- 
ble for  a  peculiar  pungency,  which  can  be  converted 
into  the  highly  valued  aromatic  principle  only  by  a 
process  of  fermentation.  Therefore  they  are  thrown 
into  pits,  covered  with  a  thin  layer  of  sand,  stirred  at 
intervals,  and  allowed  to  remain  for  three  or  four 
days.  After  which  they  are  taken  out,  cleaned,  dried 
in  the  sun,  packed  in  cases  or  sacks,  and  dispatched 
to  the  market.  They  are  best  known  in  Europe  in  the 
form  of  chocolate,  beinof  roasted,  orround  into  a  smooth 
paste  and  flavored  with  vanilla  or  other  spices. 

The  pineapple,  too.  is  found  in  this,  as  well  as  on 
the  islands  of  adjacent  groups, 

SAGO    PALM. 

At  Ceram  Island,  the  largest  of  the  Molluccas, 
one  of  the  chief  natural  productions  is  the  sago  palm, 
known  in  botany  as  the  Sagns  LcEvis  and  Sagus  Rum- 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  115 

phii.  It  is  not  only  more  plentiful  here  than  in  any  of 
the  adjoining  islands,  but  attains  to  greater  perfection. 
It  grows  to  the  height  of  one  hundred  feet,  and  a  sin- 
gle tree  will  sometimes  yield  twelve  hundred  pounds 
of  starch,  instead  of  four  hundred  pounds,  as  at  Am- 
boyna.  The  tree,  in  its  early  stage,  is  very  slow  of 
growth,  but  when  it  has  once  formed  its  stem  it  shoots 
up  rapidly,  and  assumes  its  crown  of  far-spreading  fo- 
liage and  colossal  efflorescence.  Before  the  flower 
ripens  into  fruit  the  tree  must  be  felled,  as  otherwise 
the  farina  which  man  uses  for  his  food  would  be  ex- 
hausted. 

The  sago,  which  forms  so  important  an  article  of 
commerce,  is  prepared  from  the  soft  inner  portion  of 
the  trunk,  the  latter  being  cut  into  pieces  about  two 
feet  long,  which  are  then  split  in  half,  and  the  soft  sub- 
stance scooped  out  and  pounded  in  water  till  the 
starchy  matter  separates,  when  it  is  drained  off  with 
the  water,  allowed  to  settle,  and  afterwards  purified  by 
washing.  The  substance  thus  obtained  is  sago  meal ; 
but  before  being  exported  to  the  European  markets,  it 
is  made  into  pearl  sago  by  a  Chinese  process  carried 
on  at  Singapore.  The  rough  meal  is  subjected  to 
repeated  washings  and  strainings,  then  spread  out  to 
dry,  and  broken  into  small  pieces,  which,  when  suffi- 
ciently hard,  are  pounded  and  sifted  until  they  are 
tolerably  uniform  in  size.  Small  quantities,  finally,  are 
placed  in  a  large  bag,  which  is  suspended  from  the 
ceiling,  and  shaken  backwards  and  forwards  for  about 
ten  minutes,  until  the  sago  becomes  pearled  or  granu- 
lated, after  which  it  is-  thoroughly  dried  and  packed  for 
exportation. 

(Adams's  Eastern  Archipelago;  Bickmore's  Travels  in;  Wallace: 
Malay  Archipelago.) 


ii6  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 


CHAPTER  VIII. 


ISI^AJNDS 


The  winds  are  aw'd,  nor  dare  to  breathe  aloud, 
The  air  seems  never  to  have  borne  a  cloud, 

Save  where  volcanoes  send  to  heaven  their  curl'd 
And  solemn  smokes,  like  altars  of  the  world. 

Edward  C.  Pincknev. 

NEW    GUINEA. 

NEXT  to  Australia  in  size,  probably — lying  just  to 
the  north,  and  separated  from  it  at  one  point  by 
the  narrow  Straits  of  Torres — is  New  Guinea.  It 
was  discovered  in  151 1  by  Antonia  d'Albreu  and 
Francisco  Serram.  The  population  is  altogether  na- 
tive, and  numbers  fully  500,000.  The  area  is  about 
300,000  square  miles. 

The  interior  is  wholly  unknown  to  Europeans, 
and  our  acquaintance  even  with  the  coast  line  cannot 
be  described  as  complete.  The  island  is,  however, 
most  irregular  in  form.  On  the  west  a  deep  basin, 
called  Geelvink  Bay,  sweeping  inland  from  the  north, 
almost  meets  the  Gulf  of  McClure,  entering  from  the 
west,  and  so  forms  a  bold  and  extensive  peninsula 
connected  with  the  mainland  by  a  very  narrow  isthmus. 

There  is  reason  to  believe  that  the  island  is  very 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  117 

mountainous,  with  deep,  well-wooded  valleys  breaking 
up  the  various  chains,  and  with  meadow  lands  extend- 
ing from  the  base  of  the  mountains  to  the  sea.  The 
summits  of  the  southern  peninsula  attain  a  far  loftier 
elevation  than  those  of  Australia.  Mount  Owen  Stan- 
ley, for  instance,  is  13,205  feet  high,  and  Mount  Obru 
is  10,200  feet.  A  magnificent  chain  follows  the  line 
of  the  north  coast  with  much  faithfulness,  forming  the 
ranges  of  the  Cyclops,  which  terminate  in  the  Island 
of  Jobi ;  and  further  west,  of  the  Arfak  and  Amberba- 
kin,  wath  a  maximum  height  of  about  9,000  to  9,500 
feet.  On  the  southwest  the  limestone  formation  crops 
up  in  terraced  heights,  which  rise  one  above  another 
like  the  stages  of  an  amphitheatre,  until  they  mount 
above  the  snow  line  ;  the  warm  and  humid  forests  of 
the  tropics  lying  at  their  base,  their  crests  uprearing 
the  icy,  snowy  pinnacles  of  an  Arctic  world.  The 
Snow  Mountains  are  15,400  feet  above  the  sea-level. 

Valley  and  plain  and  hill,  ravine  and  mountain 
steep,  all  are  clothed  with  a  vegetation  that  almost  de- 
fies description  by  its  luxuriance  and  variety.  When 
the  island  has  been  thoroughly  explored,  we  may  ex- 
pect to  hear  that  it  is  not  inferior  to  Java  or  Borneo  in 
fertility  of  soil.  It  is  certain  that  it  produces  all  the 
richest  of  fruits  and  the  most  valuable  growths  of  trop- 
ical nature.  In  the  lowlands,  bread-fruit,  cocoanut. 
banana,  sago,  betel,  orange  and  lemon,  and  a  multitude 
of  other  luxuries ;  in  the  hiorher  crrounds,  macrnificent 
forest  trees,  the  kanary,  the  masool,  the  wild  nutmeg, 
ebony  and  iron  wood.  Sugar  cane,  tobacco  and  rice 
yield  abundant  crops  ;  maize  and  yams  are  also  culti- 
vated, and  among  the  glories  of  the  forest  is  the  cam- 
phor tree. 

Nor  is  the  usual  parasitical  exuberance  wanting  ; 


ii8  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

epiphytous  plants  overarch  the  wooded  glades,  and 
creepers  of  every  description  hang  in  festoons  from 
bough  to  bough.  Among  the  wealth  of  leaf  and  bloom 
the  paradise  birds  build  their  sequestered  nests,  and 
the  echoes  ring  with  the  shrill  cries  of  parrots  and  lo- 
ries, and  the  murmurs  of  carpophagous  pigeons. 

Animal  life  is  not  so  abundant  as  vegetable.  The 
mammals  are  few  in  number,  and  most  of  them  are 
marsupials  of  the  Australian  type;  though  New  Guinea 
possesses  some  indigenous  species  of  kangaroos,  and 
more  particularly  two  species  which  are  strictly  arborial 
in  their  habits.  Wild  swine  are  plentiful,  as  also  the 
wood-cat.  Of  birds,  about  sixty  species  have  been 
particularized.  Insects  astonish  by  their  numbers,  and 
dazzle  by  their  brilliancy  of  coloring.  The  rivers  swarm 
with  fish,  and  so  do  the  surrounding  seas. 

The  great  island  is  not  alone  in  her  grandeur,  for 
along  her  shores,  and  no  great  distance  from  the  main 
land,  there  are  at  least  one  hundred  islands.  The  area 
of  these  would  probably  reach  10,000  square  miles, 
with  a  population  of  over  20,000  people.  The  phys- 
ical features,  as  w^ell  as  products,  are  similar  to  those 
of  New  Guinea. 

Curiously,  the  main  island^  with  those  lying  close 
to  it,  if  we  except  a  very  few^  of  the  Molluccas,  are  the 
homes  of  that  most  beautiful  of  birds,  the  Bird  of  Par- 
adise [Paradisaidcr).  They  are  not  to  be  found  on 
any  of  the  other  islands.  Of  the  Paradisee,  twenty 
species  are  already  known  ;  their  beautiful  plumage 
being  much  sought  after  to  supply  the  fashionable 
markets  of  the  world. 

AimiRALTY    ISLANDS. 

About   two    hundred   miles   to   the    northeast  of 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  119 

Papua  are  the  Admiralty  group,  about  thirty  in  num- 
ber, with  something  over  1,000  square  miles  of  area, 
and  a  population  of  25,000.         • ,  '     ,       , 

They  are  not  a  prominent  group  in  a  topograph- 
ical sense,  lying  but  a  hundred  feet  or  so  above  the 
sea  level ;  although  for  fertility  and  indigenous  tropi- 
cal products,  they  rival  some  of  the  more  famed 
islands.  The  inhabitants  are  very  similar  to  those  of 
New  Guinea. 

Basko,  or  Admiralty  Island,  is  the  principal  in  the 
group,  having  an  area  of  about  450  square  miles. 

They  were  first  discovered  by  the  Dutch  navi- 
gator Cornelius  Schooten,  in  161 6,  and  were  afterwards 
re-discovered  by  Phillip  Carteret,  in  1767,  who  located 
them  definitely  on  the  charts,  and  gave  them  the  name 
they  bear  to-day. 

NEW     IRELAND. 

South  by  east  from  the  Admiralty  group,  and 
northeast  from  Papua,  we  have  New  Ireland  and  New 
Britain. 

There  are  some  six  islands  in  the  former  group, 
New  Ireland  being  the  only  one  requiring  any  descrip- 
tion here.  It  is  about  two  hundred  miles  long  by  fif- 
teen wide,  with  some  hilly  ranges  rising  to  a  height  of 
2,000  feet.  The  island  is  well  wooded  and  watered, 
and  said  to  be  healthy  in  the  extreme.  Tropical  fruits 
are  to  be  found  in  oreat  abundance ;  while  the  forests 
that  cover  the  sloping  hills  from  valley  to  summit, 
abound  in  fancy  woods  of  great  commercial  value. 
There  are  great  numbers  of  tortoise  taken  here,  whose 
shell  is  of  the  most  beautiful  and  valued  kind.  The 
inhabitants,  like  all  the  islands  around  New  Guinea, 
excepting  always  Great  Australia,  are  of  the   woolly- 


I20  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

headed  negro  type,  and  may  be  set  down  at  16,000  in 
number,  the  whole  group  giving  an  area  of  4,300 
square  miles, 

NEW    BRITAIN. 

Southwest  from  New  Ireland,  not  many  miles 
away,  lies  the  New  Britain  group,  inhabited  by  20,000 
people,  and  having  an  area  of  10,500  square  miles, 
within  the  limits  of  the  eight  islands.  They  have  the 
same  physical  features  as  New  Ireland,  with  a  richness 
of  tropical  vegetation  unsurpassed  in  these  latitudes. 
The  natives  are  of  the  Papuan  type,  uncivilized  and 
treacherous  in  the  extreme.  The  products  are  like 
those  of  the  islands  in  the  surrounding"  seas.  This 
group,  like  many  others,  needs  but  to  be  touched  by 
the  magic  wand  of  enterprise  and  civilization  to  place 
them  among  the  important  islands  of  the  world. 

LOUISADE    ARCHIPELAGO. 

Southeast  from  Papua,  stretched  over  350  miles 
of  the  sea,  the  Louisade  Archipelago  lies,  a  Tong,  low 
group,  with  scarcely  any  prominence  in  the  way  of  hills 
and  mountains.  Little  is  known  of  the  value  of  the 
] products  of  these  islands,  the  fierce  and  treacherous 
disposition  of  the  natives  preventing  close  commercial 
relations.  As  far  as  known,  the  area  of  the  group 
does  not  exceed  1,500  square  miles;  while  it  is  safe  to 
estimate  the  population  at  5,000.  The  islands  have 
every  appearance  of  being  very  fertile,  tropical  verdure 
spreading  over  the  cluster  on  every  hand.  The  na- 
tives are  negritos  of  the  worst  type. 

PHILLIPPINE    ISLANDS. 

This  remarkable  group  of  islands,  numbering  over 
1.200,  with  an  area  of  al)out  1 50,000  square  miles,  and 


OF   THE  PACIFIC   OCEAN  121 

a  population  of  5,000,000,  is  said  to  have  been  discov- 
ered by  Magellan  in  1521.  This,  like  many  of  the 
modern  discoveries,  and  credited  to  particular  discov- 
erers, will  not  bear  the  test  of  research  ;  as  Marco 
Polo  sailed  through  the  group  as  early  as  the  thirteenth 
century. 

For  a  description  of  this  great  island  cluster,  with 
some  of  their  products,  I  am  indebtefli  to  "Adams' 
Eastern  Archigelago,"  and  the  writing,s  of  that  great 
navigator  and  bold  buccaneer,  William  Dampier. 

These  islands  present  so  ^  many  interesting  and 
attractive  features,  that  we  shall  attempt  a  somewhat 
detailed  account,  beginning  with  a  general  view  of 
their  prominent  characteristics,  glancing  at  the  history 
of  their  discovery  by  Europeans,  and  concluding  with 
some  sketches  of  their  scenery,  and  leading  forms  of 
animal  and  vegetable  life. 

The  principal  islands  are  Luzon,  Mindanao,  Min- 
doro,  Samar,  Panay,  Leyte,  Zebu,  Negros,  Bohol  and 
Alawan.  The  whole  cluster  is  divided  into  groups  ; 
the  Sooloos,  Bissayas,  Pasay,  Bashu  and  Babwyan  be- 
ing the  most  important. 

TOPOGRAPHICAL. 

The  larger  islands  of  the  group  appear  to  produce 
a  powerful  impression  on  the  imagination  of  the  voya- 
ger, to  judge  from  the  many  glowing  pictures  contained 
in  various  narratives.  Their  coast  line  is  bold  and  ir- 
regular, broken  up  by  numerous  romantic  headlands, 
the  declivities  of  which  are  Qrreen  with  abundant  foli- 
age ;  by  long,  narrow  tongues  of  land,  with  forest 
growth  extending  to  the  very  margin  of  the  sea  ;  by 
broad  bays,  each  capable  of  accommodating  an  imperial 


122  '  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

fleet ;  and  narrow  inlets  and  creeks,  so  embowered  in 
shade  that  large  ships  might  harbor  in  them  and  not 
be  discovered  by  a  passing  enemy.  Then,  from  the 
bright  and  picturesque  shore,  the  ground  rises  inland 
with  a  continual  ascent,  until  the  undulating  plains  are 
succeeded  by  low  ranges  of  wooded  hills,  and  these 
by  lofty  ranges,  which  here  and  there  culminate  in 
magnificent  ^lountain  peaks.  In  and  among  these 
ranges,  which  are  irregular  in  their  direction,  and 
throw  off  numerous  short  chains  and  spurs,  lie  slopes 
of  perennial  verdure,,  and  valleys  so  gifted  with  the 
bounties  of  nature  that  they  surpass  the  dreams  of  the 
Arcadian  poets.  Here,  too,  are  broad,  deep  lakes,  in 
their  sfeneral  features  remindingr  the  traveler  of  the 
charming  basins  of  the  Scottish  Highlands  ;  while  many 
streams  flow  through  the  verdurous  glens  to  unite  in 
ample  rivers,  which,  with  full  channels,  descend  to  the 
sea. 

The  vegetation  of  the  Phillippines  is  among  the 
richest  of  tropical  climes.  A  fertile  soil  is  assisted  by 
a  genial  climate.  Droughts  are  unknown ;  the  tropical 
heats  are  tempered  by  abundant  moisture  and  by  the 
constant  alternation  of  the  land  and  sea  breezes.  In 
the  western  portions  of  the  group,  the  rainy  season 
begins  in  June  and  ends  in  September;  in  the  east  it 
begins  in  October  and  ends  in  January ;  and  the  rains 
are  then  so  heavy  and  so  continuous  that  the  low 
grounds  are  converted  into  extensive  lakes. 

This  inundation,  however,  increases  the  fertility 
of  the  soil  and  favors  the  growth  of  exuberant  crops. 
It  may  almost  be  said  that  the  only  misfortune  to  which 
the  islands  are  liable — the  only  shade  on  a  picture 
which  astonishes  us  by  its  splendor — is  the  frequency 
and  severity  of  their  earthquakes.     They  form  a  part 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  123 

of  the  great  volcanic  chain  to  which,  in  describing-  the 
Eastern  Archipelago,  we  have  so  often  found  it  neces- 
sary to  allude;  and  they  possess  several  volcanoes, 
both  active  and  extinct — among  the  most  important  of 
which  is  that  of  Taal.  Manilla,  the  capital  of  Luzon, 
and  the  chief  town  of  the  group,  was  ruined  by  a  con- 
vulsion which  broke  out  on  the  evening  of  the  3d  of 
June,  1863.  The  cathedral,  with  its  noble  dome,  was 
shattered  into  ruins  by  a  shock  which  occurred  while 
the  priests  were  chanting  vespers.  The  Viceroy's  pal- 
ace was  destroyed,  and  the  British  consulate.  Not 
one  of  the  churches  escaped,  and  the  only  one  left 
standing  (that  of  Binondo)  was  rent  from  roof  to  base- 
ment.     Nearly  two  thousand  persons  perished. 

MINERALS. 

The  Phillippines  are  not  only  rich  in  vegetation, 
but  abound  in  subterranean  treasures.  The  sands  of 
their  rivers  yield  no  inconsiderable  quantities  of  gold- 
dust.  All  the  palaces  of  earth  might  be  rebuilt  from 
their  extensive  quarries  of  marble  and  limestone.  The 
coal  fields  cover  a  wide  area  and  produce  an  excellent 
fuel.  Iron — the  wealth  of  strong  and  povv-erful  nations 
— and  copper  of  the  best  quality,  are  found  in  all  the 
mountain  ranges.  Sulphur,  magnesia,  quicksilver, 
Vermillion,  saltpetre  and  alum  are  also  plentiful.  So 
vast,  indeed,  are  the  resources  of  the  Phillippines,  that 
only  an  able  government  is  needed  to  give  them  the 
position  of  a  w^ealthy,  influential  and  prosperous  com- 
mercial state.  But  the  colonial  administration  of  Spain 
has  never  been  marked  by  either  vigor  or  sagacit)- ; 
and  though  the  recent  development  of  commerce  has 
been  considerable,  it  is  by  no  means  proportionate  to 
the  capabilities  of  these  beautiful  islands. 


124  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

The  forest  trees  which  cover  the  valley  slopes  and 
ascend  the  mountain  sides  are  very  valuable.  Among 
the  plants  cultivated  for  use,  we  find  the  gornuti  or 
cabonegro  palm,  the  abuca.  the  cocoa  and  other  palms, 
the  pineapple,  the  cacao  tree,  cotton  and  coffee,  the 
tamarind,  indigo  and  sugar-cane.  Tobacco  is  largely 
grown,  and  the  Manilla  cigars  are  scarcely  less  cele- 
brated than  those  of  Havana.  Rice  is  raised  in  im- 
mense quantities,  and  forms  a  principal  article  of  trade  ; 
and  the  vegetable  wealth  of  the  group  also  includes 
cassia,  cloves,  red  and  black  pepper,  vanilla,  cinnamon, 
nutmegs,  maize,  wheat,  yams,  the  sweet  potato,  and  a 
variety  of  the  most  delicious  fruits  on  which  the  ripen- 
ing sunshine  of  the  tropics  falls. 

ANIMALS. 

Animal  life  is  neither  less  various  nor  less  exube- 
rant. The  horses  of  the  Phillippines  are  small,  but 
strong  and  lively ;  the  deer  supply  a  capital  venison  ; 
hogs,  goats,  sheep,  buffaloes  and  oxen  are  bred  by  the 
agriculturist;  foxes  and  gazelles  frequent  the  valleys  ; 
monkeys,  squirrels,  wildcats,  and  the  bagiia,  a  kind  of 
llying  cat.  the  woods.  The  jungles  are  enlivened  by 
the  bright  plumage  of  humming  birds,  parrots,  and  the 
rhinoceros  bird.  The  sea  swallow  builds  her  edible 
nest  in  the  hollows  and  caves  of  the  rocky  coasts.  The 
forests  swarm  with  eagles,  falcons,  herons,  pigeons, 
game  cocks,  quails,  and  the  lakes  with  aquatic  birds. 
Pools  and  rivers  teem  with  fish ;  but  here  an  unplea- 
sant fact  obtrudes  itself  upon  us — crocodiles  are  nu- 
merous. Serpents  lurk  in  the  dense  growth  of  the 
forests ;  leeches  swarm  in  the  swampy  lowlands  ;  rep- 
tiles abound,  and  insect  life  displays  itself  with  a  luxu- 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  123 

riance  which  both  native  and  stranger  find  good  cause 
to  lament.     ■•'       '•'      '•' 

We  have  spoken  of  the  forest  trees.  They  at- 
tract attention  by  their  enormous  bulk  and  by  their 
huge  canopies  of  spreading  foliage.  They  are  bound 
together  by  the  remarkable  bush-rope  or  palaseru, 
which  ofrows  in  festoons  several  hundred  feet  in  leno-th  ; 
while  a  whole  world  of  epiphytous  plants,  parasites, 
creepers,  climbers  and  liaries  find  nourishment  in  their 
bark,  or  support  on  their  stalwart  arms,  and  spread 
everywhere  such  a  tangle  of  leaf  and  stem  and  blossom, 
that  the  traveler  can  only  force  his  way  into  the  forest 
depths,  axe  in  hand. 

INHABITANTS. 

The  industrial  occupations  of  the  natives  include  a 
very  ingenious  method  of  working  in  horn  ;  the  manu- 
facture of  gold  and  silver  chains  ;  of  cigar  cases,  and 
tine  hats  in  various  vegetable  fibres ;  of  beautifully 
colored  mats,  embroidered  with  gold  and  silver  ;  the 
dressing  and  varnishing  of  leather;  ship-building  and 
coach-buildintr.  The  manufacture  of  cigars  o-ives  em- 
ployment  to  a  large  number  of  people.  The  cordage 
of  the  Phillippines  is  held  in  good  repute.  The  textile 
fabrics  are  said  to  be  fifty-two  in  number,  from  the 
delicate  and  costly  shawls  and  handkerchiefs,  made 
from  the  fibre  of  pine-apple  leaves,  called  pinas,  and 
sold  at  the  rate  of  one  or  two  ounces  of  gold  a  piece, 
down  to  a  coarse  cotton  and  stout  sackinor,  wrougfht 
from  the  fibres  of  the  abaca  and  gornuti  palms. 

We  have  nearly  completed  our  general  view  of 
islands,  but  a  few  details  seem  wanting  for  the  full  in- 
formation of  the  reader.  The  two  principal  races  are 
the  Tagals  and   Bisayers,  who   inhabit  the  towns,  vil- 


126  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

'  lao-es,  and  cultivated  lowlands,  and  are  mostly  Roman 
Catholics,  though  a  considerable  number  remain  faith- 
ful to  the  creed  of  Mohammed.  In  the  mountainous 
interior  we  find  what  is  probably  the  original  race,  the 
Oceanic  Negroes,  a  black -complexioned,  negroish 
people,  closely  resembling  in  their  persons  and  cus- 
toms the  Papuan  Alfoories.  They  are  chiefly  heathens, 
practicing  a  wild  and  crude  idolatry,  or  otherwise  ob- 
serving no  religious  form  at  all,  though  not  free  from 
degrading  superstitions.  Among  the  industrial  popu- 
lation a  foremost  place  must  be  given  to  the  Chinese 
immigrants,  who,  however,  do  not  settle  permanently 
in  the  islands ;  while  the  Mestizos,  or  half-breeds,  who 
are  mostly  of  Chinese  fathers  and  native  mothers,  ex- 
hibit a  remarkable  degree  of  activity,  enterprise  and 
industry.  Spaniards  are-  few  in  this  Spanish  colony, 
except  in  the  military  and  naval  service. 

DAMPIER. 

Dampier  visited  these  islands  in  1 686,  as  pilot  on 
board  the  Cygnet,  a  privateer,  or  buccaneering  vessel, 
commanded  by  Captain  Swan.  They  were  kindly  re- 
ceived by  the  natives,  though  their  piratical  character 
seems  to  have  been  suspected.'  They  obtained  a  sup- 
ply of  fresh  provisions ;  and  Dampier  for  the  first  time 
saw  the  bread-fruit  tree,  the  staff  of  life  to  so  many  of 
the  Polynesian  tribes.  At  the  flying  proas,  or  sailing 
canoes  of  the  natives,  the  visitors  were  greatly  aston- 
ished. They  were  admirably  built,  and  so  swift  that 
Dampier  was  persuaded  that  one  of  them  would  sail 
twenty-four  miles  an  hour;  and  another  had  accom- 
plished the  distance  between  Guahan  and  Manilla,  or 
400  leagues,  in  four  days. 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  127 

Dampier  describes  the  trees  of  Mindanao  with 
some  degree  of  particularity.  In  his  time  they  were 
curiosities,  and  scarcely  known  to  Europeans,  even  by 
repute ;  but  now  we  are  all  familiar  with  the  properties 
of  the  bread-fruit  and  the  cocoa-nut,  the  nutmeg  and 
the  banana,  the  durian  and  the  plantain. 


HIS    ACCOUNT    OF   THE    PLANTAIN. 

The  plantain  he  boldly  terms  the  king  of  all  fruit. 
He  will  brook  no  rivals  near  its  throne,  not  even  the 
cocoanut  palm,  gracefulest  of  all  vegetable  wonders, 
which  wins  the  admiration  of  every  cultivated  eye 
with  its  slender,  shapely  column  and  lifted  crown  of 
plumes.  The  tree  that  bears  the  plantain  is,  he  says, 
about  three  feet  or  three  and  a  half  feet  around  and 
ten  or  twelve  feet  hiofh.  It  is  not  raised  from  seed, 
but  from  the  roots  of  old  trees  of  the  same  kind.  If 
these  young  suckers  are  taken  out  of  the  ground  and 
planted  in  another  place  they  will  not  fructify  for 
fifteen  months,  but  if  allowed  to  remain  in  their  own 
soil  they  will  fructify  in  twelve.  As  soon  as  the  fruit 
is  ripe  the  tree  decays,  but  several  young  ones  are 
ready  to  take  its  place.  On  first  emerging  from  the 
ground  it  springs  up  with  two  leaves,  and  by  the  time 
it  is  a  foot  in  height  two  more  spring  up  inside  the 
first  couple,  and  shortly  afterwards  two  more  within 
them;  and  so  the  brave  work  goes  on.  By  the  time 
it  is  a  month  old  a  small  stem  about  the  size  of  a 
man's  arm  is  discernible,  as  well  as  eight  or  ten  leaves, 
some  of  which  are  four  or  five  feet  high.  The  first 
leaves,  however,  are  not  more  than  twelve  inches  long 
and  six  broad ;  the  stem  that  bears  them  is  no  biofrer 
than  a  man's  finger,  but  the  leaves  increase  in  size  as 


128  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

the  tree  increases  in  height.  The  old  leaves  spread 
off  as  the  young  spring  on  the  inside,  and  their  tops 
droop  downwards,  being  of  a  greater  length  and 
breadth  in  proportion  as  they  are  nearer  to  the  roots. 
At  last  they  decay  and  drop  off,  but  the  young  leaves 
alwa)s  blooming  at  the  top  preserve  the  green  and 
flourishing  aspect  of  the  tree.     '•'     ""•'     ''' 

Thus  the  body  of  the  tree  seems  to  be  made  up 
of  many  thick  skins,  orrowino-  one  over  another,  and 
when  it  is  full  grown,  out  of  the  top  springs  a  strong- 
stem,  harder  in  substance  than  any  other  part  of  the 
trunk. 

This  stem  shoots  forth  at  the  heart  of  the  tree, 
is  as  big,  says  Dampier,  and  as  long  as  a  man's  arm, 
and,  all  clustering  around,  grows  the  fruit — and  such 
fruit !  The  Spaniards  give  it  the  first  place  among  the 
productions  of  Pomona  as  most  conducive  to  life.  It 
grows  in  a  pod  about  six  or  seven  inches  long,  and  is 
of  the  size  of  a  man's  arm — a  favorite  comparison, 
we  may  observe,  with  Dampier.  The  pod,^  shell  or 
rind  is  soft,  and  when  ripe  is  as  yellow  as  gold.  The 
fruit  within  is  no  harder  than  butter  in  winter,  and 
resembles  good  yellow  butter  in  color.  It  is  of  a 
delicate  taste,  and  melts  in  one's  mouth  like  marma- 
lade. It  is  all  pure  pulp,  without  any  seed,  stone  or 
kernel,  Europeans  when  they  settle  in  America 
learn  to  esteem  it  so  highly  that  when  the}'  make  a 
n(,'w  plantation  they  usually  begin  with  a  good  "plan- 
tain walk,"  as  they  call  it,  or  a  "field  of  plantains," 
and  as  their  family  increases,  so  do  they  enlarge 
their  plantain  walk,  keeping  one  man  purposely  to 
prune  the  trees  and  gather  the  fruit  as  it  reaches 
maturity.  l-'or  some,  or  other  of  the  trees,  are 
always  bearing  throughout   the   year,  and   frequently 


TEA    PLANT    OF    JAPAN. 


OF    THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  129 

this  is  the  only  food  on  which  a  whole  family  exists. 
Such,  at  least,  is  Dampier's  statement;  but  accurate 
as  he  generally  is,  some  exaggeration  is  surely  mani- 
fest here. 

I  have  (juoted  thus  far  from  the  memoirs  of  Dam- 
pier,  to  show  the  style  of  writing,  as  well  as  the 
observing  powers  of  the  great  buccaneer.  Narrating 
in  a  period  about  two  hundred  years  past,  he  writes 
on  many  subjects  with  a  detail  and  accuracy  truly 
astonishing. 

In  those  days,  as  well  at  the  present  time,  the 
plantain  and  banana  are  often  confounded  as  one 
and  the  same  fruit.  In  reality  the  distinction  is 
nearly  as  great  as  that  betw^een  a  pumpkin  and  a 
melon.  .  And  although  belonging  to  the  same  botan- 
ical species,  one  is  a  delicious  natural  fruit  while  the 
other  requires  the  culinary  art  to  make  it  acceptable  as 
a  food. 

Manilla,  on  the  island  of  Luzon,  the  capital  city 
of  the  Phillippines,  is  in  north  latitude  14  deg.  36 
min.,  and  east  longitude  120  deg.  52  min.  Inhabited 
by  about  300,000  people,  it  has  long  been  the  princi- 
pal commercial  port  of  the  Spanish  possessions  in 
the  Pacific.  The  exports  of  sugar  are  about  150,- 
000  tons  per  annum,  with  50,000  tons  of  Mani.la 
hemp  and  100,000,000  cigars.  In  the  manufacture 
of  the  latter,  10,000  women  are  employed,  the  factory 
covering  a  space  of  over  six  acres. 

TOBACCO. 

Nature,  climate  and  locality  have  combined  to 
make  the  islands  of  the  Pacific  favored  lands  for  the 
extensive  cultivation,  preparation  and  export  of  to- 
bacco. 


I  JO  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

Of  the  plant  itself,  it  may  be  claimed  as  the  Nico- 
tiana  Tabaamt,  indigenous  to  America,  but  cultivated 
now  in  nearly  all  parts  of  the  world.  Seeds  of  the 
plant  were  sent  by  Jean  Nicot,  in  1560,  from  Portugal, 
to  Catherine  de  Medici.  Nicot  was  the  French  am- 
bassador in  that  country,  from  whom  the  plant  receives 
its  botanical  name.  Its  first  introduction  into  Europe 
from  the  new  world  may  be  dated  from  the  beginning 
of  the  sixteenth  century.  Its  first  introduction  into 
England  by  Sir  Walter  Raleigh,  from  Virginia,  oc- 
curred about  1586.  Hayden  ascribes  it  to  Sir  John 
Hawkins  in  1565,  while  many  others  grant  it  to  Raleigh 
and  Sir  Francis  Drake. 

Baird,  Humboldt,  and  many  of  the  encyclopaedias, 
state  its  name  to  be  derived  from  the  Indian  word 
tabacos,  a  name  given  by  the  Carribees  to  the  pipe,  in 
which  they  smoked  the  leaves  of  the  plant.  Baird 
says  it  is  the  common  name  of  the  species  of  herba- 
ceous, rarely-shrubby  plants,  of  the  genus  Nicotia^ia, 
generally  clothed  with  clammy  hairs  or  down,  and  na- 
tives for  the  most  part  of  the  warmer  portions  of  Amer- 
ica, a  few  growing  also  in  the  East.  The  species  which 
yields  most  of  the  tobacco  of  commerce,  is  the  com- 
mon Virginian  or  sweet-scented  tobacco,  extensively 
cultivated  in  the  warmer  portions  of  the  United  States, 

The  claim  for  its  first  uses  among  the  Chinese. 
Mongols,  and  the  East  Indians,  says  Mr,  McCulloch, 
is.  however,  a  very  doubtful  proposition.  It  seems 
sufficiently  established  that  the  tobacco  plant  was  first 
brought  from  Brazil  to  India  about  the  year  161 7,  and 
it  is  most  probable  that  it  was  thence  carried  to  Siam, 
China,  and  other  Eastern  countries.  The  names  given 
to  it  in  all  the  languages  of  the  East  are  obviously  of 
European,  or  rather  of  American   origin,  a  fact  which 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  131 

seems  completely  to  negative  the   idea  of  its  being  in- 
digenous to  the  East. 

Where  properly  cultivated,  picked  and  cured,  the 
best  qualities  of  "Old  Virginia"  tobacco,  for  chewing 
or  smoking,  has  no  superior.  That  of  Havana,  for 
the  manufacture  of  cigars  alone,  takes  first  place,  but 
does  not  seem  to  have  the  requisite  qualities  that  go 
to  make  either  a  palatable  "fine  cut"  or  "plug"  chew- 
ing tobacco. 


132  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 


CHAPTER  IX. 


XSI<A]VDS 


And  yonder  by  Nankin,  behold! 

The  tower  of  porcelain,  strange  and  old, 
Uplifting  to  the  astonished  skies 

Its  nine-fold  painted  balconies. 
With  balustrades  of  twining  leaves. 

And  roofs  of  tile,  beneath  whose  eaves 
Hang  porcelain  bells  that  all  the  time 

Ring  with  a  soft  melodious  chime  ; 

Longfellow  {Keravios.) 

ISLANDS  OF  THE  CHINESE  EMriRE. 

\  BRIEF  glance  at  some  of  the  islands  belonging 
*>>V^  to  China  may  not  prove  uninteresting.  They 
may  be  set  down  at  about  forty  in  number,  with 
an  area  of  35,000  square  miles  and  a  population  of 
4,500,000.  Hainan,  Formosa,  and  the  islands  of  the 
Chusan  Archipelago,  are  the  most  important. 

HAINAN. 

Hainan,  in  the  China  Sea,  between  18  deg.  and 
20  deg.  north  latitude,  and  between  108  deg.  and  1 11 
deg.  east  longitude,  has  an  area  of  12,000  square  miles 
and  a  population  of  1,500,000.  It  is  but  fifteen  miles 
from  the  mainland  of  China,  the  inhabitants  being  prin- 
cipally people  of  that  country.     The    interior  is  very 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  133 

mountainous,  and  is  said  to  be  a  desolate,  barren  re- 
gion. The  shore  countr}^  however,  is  very  fertile,  and 
is  cultivated  with  all  the  skill  of  the  Chinese  aericultu- 
rist.  Unlike  Formosa,  there  are  many  good  harbors 
indenting  its  shores.  The  products  of  the  land  are 
similar  to  those  already  mentioned,  ranging  from  the 
tropical  to  those  of  the  more  temperate  climes. 

FORMOSA. 

Formosa,  somewhat  larger  than  Hainan,  having 
an  area  of  15,000  square  miles,  lies  between  21  deg. 
58  min.  and  25  deg.  15  min.  north  latitude,  and  east 
longitude  120  deg.  and  122  deg.;  is  separated  from  the 
mainland  by  a  channel  nearly  ninety  miles  in  width. 
The  inhabitants,  some  2,500,000  in  number,  are  of  the 
Chinese  and  Malay  types. 

The  island  is  of  evident  volcanic  origin,  many  traces 
of  former  eruptions  being  found,  but  wholly  inactive  at 
present.  Mountain  ranges  traverse  the  land,  many  of 
whose  peaks  are  covered  with  perpetual  snow.  There 
are  no  good  harbors,  making  commerce  and  navigation 
to  and  from  Formosa,  exceedingly  dangerous.  The 
lands,  where  cultivated,  are  very  productive.  Nearly 
all  the  fruits  of  the  tropics  are  grown,  with  rice,  coffee, 
sugar  and  tobacco  as  staples.  The  forests  abound  in 
camphor,  cinnamon,  ebony  and  other  valuable  trees. 

Formosa  was  first  made  known  to  Europeans  by 
some  returning  Spanish  seamen  who  had  lost  their 
vessel  on  the  island's  rocky  shores  in  1582. 

The  fisheries  of  these  two  islands  are  of  great 
value,  as  also  those  of  the  Chusan  Archipelago.  Im- 
mense quantities  are  taken,  cleaned,  dried  and  sold  in 
the   markets  of  China.     This  valuable  interest  is  not 


134-  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

confined  alone  to  these  islands,  but  is  of  great  commer- 
cial importance  in  nearly  all  of  the  island  groups  de- 
'scribed. 

Like  Australia,  in  the  surrounding  seas,  as  many 
as  thirteen  hundred  species  of  fish  are  known. 

JAPAN. 

Dai  Niphon,  the  Japanese  Empire,  we  know  of, 
through  history  and  tradition,  as  far  back  as  680  b.  c. 
The  island  empire  is  embraced  between  latitude  23 
deg.  and  50  deg.  north,  and  longitude  122  deg.  and 
153  deg.  east.  Thousands  of  islands  (the  official  num- 
ber is  stated  to  be  4,000),  stretched  over  the  Asiatic 
seas,  make  a  landed  area  of  about  250,000  square 
miles,  inhabited  by  34,000,000  people. 

The  island  chains  and  clusters  are  divided  into 
groups,  the  more  important  being  named  Kurile,  Kiu- 
shiu,  Niphon,  Riukiu,  Sado,  Shikokiu,  Yezo,  Goto, 
Oki,  Iki,  Oshima,  Awaji,  Hirado,  etc.;  the  most  noted 
cities  on  which  are  Tokio  (formerly  Yedo),  Kioto, 
Ozaka,  Nagoya,  Hiroshuma,  Sagii,  Kagoshuma,  Ka- 
nagawa,  Samoda,  etc. 

HISTORY. 

Our  first  knowledge  of  Japan  was  through  the 
celebrated  Venetian  traveler,  Marco  Polo,  who  visited 
the  empire  in  the  thirteenth  century.  At  a  more  mod- 
ern period  we  hear  of  them  through  the  efforts  of  the 
Catholic  missionaries,  and  again  from  the  Dutch  ex- 
plorer, Kaempfer.  It  remained,  however,  almost  a 
terra  incognita  until  1854,  when  the  United  States, 
through   the   efforts  of  Commodore  Perry,  succeeded 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  135 

in    making   a    commercial  treaty  that  opened  up  the 
isolated  empire  to  the  trade  of  the  world. 

The  islands  of  Japan  were  probably  peopled  by 
the  Chinese  in  1000  b.  c. — many  traces  of  whom  are 
to  be  found  in  the  language,  manners,  religion,  cus- 
toms and  agriculture  of  the  Japanese  to-day.  The  art 
of  navigation,  also,  was  well  understood  by  them  for 
many  centuries. 

NAVIGATIOiNT. 

As  early  as  the  sixteenth  year  of  the  reign  of  the 
Emperor  Suizin,  81  b.  c,  merchant  ships  and  ships 
of  war  are  spoken  of  as  being  built  in  Japan. 

In  the  early  periods  their  vessels  must  have  been 
greatly  superior  in  form  and  build  to  those  of  the 
present  day.  In  fact,  they  were  and  are  mariners  of 
no  mean  order,  and  through  this  circumstance  alone, 
if  we  add  the  storms,  favoring  winds  and  the  ocean 
currents  of  the  Kuro  Shiwo  in  the  north,  and  the 
Peruvian  currents  in  the  south,  the  peopling  of  North 
and  South  America  can  be  traced  back  to  the  Japanese 
and  Chinese. 

The  disappearance  of  Japanese  vessels  off  of  their 
coast,  with  their  crews,  never  to  return,  whether 
through  accident  or  design,  have  become  so  frequent 
as  to  require  an  imperial  decree  to  check  it.  Under 
the  reign  of  Shogoon  Irzemitsu,  about  1639,  an 
edict  was  issued  commandinof  the  destruction  of  all 
boats  built  on  any  foreign  model,  and  forbade  the 
building  of  vessels  of  any  size  or  shape  superior  to 
that  of  the  present  junk.  By  the  imperial  decree  of 
1637,  Japanese  who  had  left  their  country  and  been 
abroad  were  not  allowed  to  return,  death  being  the 
penalty    for   traveling   abroad,   studying    foreign  Ian- 


136  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

guages,  introducing  foreign   customs  or  believing  in 
Christianity. 

About  this  time  all  junks  were  ordered  to  be 
built  with  open  sterns  and  large  square  rudders,  unfit 
for  ocean  navigation,  as  it  was  hoped  thereby  to  keep 
the  people  isolated  within  their  own  islands.  Once 
forced  from  the  coast  by  stress  of  weather,  these  rud- 
ders are  soon  washed  away,  when  the  vessels  naturally 
fall  off  into  the  trough  of  the  sea  and  roll  their  masts 
out.  The  number,  of  which  no  record  exists  which  have 
thus  suffered  during  the  last  nineteen  centuries,  must 
be  very  large,  probably  many  thousand  vessels. 

(Brooks  on  Japanese  Wrecks.) 

TOPOGRAPHY. 

The  topograpical  features  of  Japan  must  of  a 
necessity  vary  a  great  deal.  Being  a  country  wholly 
composed  of  islands,  large  and  small,  the  physical 
features  of  mountains,  valleys,  lakes  and  streams, 
have  not  that  extent  and  grandeur  of  older  and 
larger  countries.  The  rivers  for  this  reason  are  not 
long,  broad  or  of  very  great  depth,  and  therefore 
inland  navigation  is  not  much  in  vogue.  However 
some  of  the  mountain  ranges  are  very  prominent, 
notably  the  volcanic  peak  of  Fugisan,  with  an  altitude 
of  14,000  feet,  in  the  regions  of  perpetual  snow. 

EARTHQUAKES. 

Geologically,  the  position  of  most  of  the  islands 
is  of  so  uneasy  a  foundation  that  a  popular  tradi- 
tion of  the  Japanese,  locates  their  empire  on  the 
back  of  a  huge  catfish.     To    the   uneasy  and   angry 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  137 

motions  of  this  fish  they  attribute  their  numerous 
earthquakes — as  many  as  eighty  of  these  tcmblo7's 
sometimes  visiting  them  in  one  day.  They  are  fre- 
quent, and  at  times  very  disastrous,  the  danger  from 
fire  in  their  wooden  cities  often  adding  to  the  horrors. 
On  this  subject  a  recent  writer  says:  Besides  the 
outbursts  of  frequent  volcanic  eruptions,  no  country 
is  more  frequently  visited  by  destructive  earthquakes. 
Kaempfer  enumerates  six  active  volcanic  mountains. 
Earthquakes,  he  says,  are  so  frequent  that  the  natives 
regard  them  no  more  than  Europeans  do  ordinary 
storms.  In  1855  a  succession  of  earthquakes  took 
place  and  lasted  forty  days,  causing  the  destruction 
the  best  portion  of  the  city  of  Yeddo,  and  the  death, 
it  is  alleged,  of  200,000  of  its  inhabitants.  In  1783 
the  eruption  of  a  volcano  on  the  island  of  Kiusui, 
accompanied  by  violent  earthquakes,  destroyed  in  a 
single  province  twenty-seven  villages.  Another  vol- 
canic eruption  took  place  in  the  same  island  in  1793, 
accompanied  by  earthquakes,  which  continued  from 
March  to  June,  and  caused,  according  to  official  re- 
turns, the  death  of  53,000  persons,  with  a  propor- 
tional destruction  of  property.  On  the  23d  of  De- 
cember, 1854,  an  earthquake  occurred  which  was  felt 
on  the  whole  coast.  Of  the  town  of  Simoda,  only  a 
few  temples  and  private  edifices  that  stood  on  elevated 
ground  escaped  destruction.  The  fine  city  of  Osacka, 
on  the  southeastern  side  of  Niphon,  was  completely 
destroyed,  and  the  capital,  Yeddo,  did  not  escape 
without  injury.  On  the  loth  of  November,  1855,  an 
earthquake  at  Yeddo  is  said  to  have  caused  the  de- 
struction of  100,000  dwellings  and  fifty-four  temples 
and  the  death  of  30,000  persons. 

(Homan's  Cyclo.  of  Com.  and  Nav.) 


jj8  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

METALLURGY. 

The  empire  produces  all  the  valuable  minerals  in 
abundance,  as  also  a  good  bituminous  coal,  which  they 
turn  into  coke  and  use  extensively  in  working  the 
metals. 

They  are  the  masters  of  many  secret  processes 
in  mineralogy  and  metallurgy,  and  in  the  inlaying  of 
metals,  one  on  the  other,  much  used  in  the  ornamenta- 
tion of  their  bronzes,  mingling  gold,  copper  and  silver 
in  the  most  delicate  and  intricate  designs,  have  never 
been  equalled  in  Europe  or  America.  In  modeling  in 
wax,  to  receive  the  clayey  covering  afterwards,  pre- 
paratory to  casting  the  designs  in  bronze  or  other 
metals,  they  show  a  knowledge  and  skill  seldom 
equalled. 

FLORA. 

The  vegetable  productions  of  Japan  are  for  the 
most  part  common  to  temperate  regions.  Timber, 
however,  is  so  scarce  that  no  one  is  permitted  to  cut 
down  a  tree  without  permission  from  the  magistrate, 
and  only  on  condition  of  planting  a  young  one  in  its 
stead.  The  most  common  forest  trees  are  the  fir  and 
cedar,  the  latter  growing  to  an  immense  size;  being 
sometimes  more  than  eig-hteen  feet  in  diameter.  In 
the  northern  portion  of  the  empire  two  species  of  oak 
are  found,  which  differ  from  those  of  Europe.  The 
acorns  of  one  kind  are  boiled  and  eaten,  and  are  said 
to  be  both  palatable  and  nutritious.  The  mulberry 
tree  grows  wild,  and  in  abundance  ;  the  varnish  tree 
{rkus  vernix)  abounds  in  many  districts.  In  the  south 
the  bamboo  cane,  though  a  tropical  plant,  is  found 
either  in  the  wild  or  cultivated  state,  and  is  much  used 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  139 

in  their  manufactories.  The  camphor  tree  is  of  great 
vakie  here,  and  Hves  to  a  great  age.  Siebold  visited 
one  which  Kaempfor  described  as  having  been  seen  by 
him  135  years  before.  It  was  healthy  and  covered 
with  fohage,  and  had  a  circumference  of  fifty  feet. 
The  Country  people  make  the  camphor  from  a  decoc- 
tion of  the  root  and  stems,  cut  into  small  pieces. 
Chestnut  and  walnut  trees  are  both  found.  Among 
the  fruit  trees  are  the  orange,  lemon,  fig,  plum,  apple, 
cherry  and  apricot, 

(Homans.) 

As  agriculturists  the  Japanese  are  fully  equal  to 
the  Chinese ;  in  fact,  using  all  the  methods  of  irriga- 
tion, rotation  of  crops,  the  use  of  manures,  so  much  in 
vogue  in  the  older  country.  They  are  experts  in  the 
handling  of  the  silk-worm,  turning  its  cocoon  into  all 
the  forms  of  valuable  silk ;  while  in  the  growth  and 
cultivation  of  the  tea-plant  they  are  unsurpassed. 

INHABITANTS. 

They  are  far  advanced  in  horticulture  as  well,  and 
far  ahead  of  other  nations  in  their  methods  of  urging 
on  or  retarding  the  growth  of  plants.  Thus  the  Cam- 
ellia Japonica  may  be  seen  from  a  very  diminutive 
growth  to  a  tree  forty  feet  in  height,  while  the  pine, 
cedar,  and  fruit,  are  represented  in  trees  of  mature 
growth,  from  two  inches  in  height  up  to  the  natural 
growth  common  in  other  countries. 

The  Japanese  are  bold  and  daring  mariners,  and 
the  ^nly  race  in  these  regions  who  pursue  the  whale. 
They  make  many  voyages  to  Kamptchatka  and  the 
Aleutian  isles,  makinof  licjht  of  heat  and  cold,  or  hard- 
ships  of  any  kind.     It  has  only  been  through  the  re- 


I40  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

straint  placed  upon  them  by  the  severest  of  laws,  that 
has  prevented  these  people  from  being  known  to  the 
maritime  world  centuries  ago,  and  taking  their  place 
amongst  the  most  enterprising  and  boldest  of  navi- 
gators. 

The  many  bays  and  inlets  indenting  the  island 
shores,  swarm  with  shoals  of  fish,  and  they,  with  the 
lakes  and  rivers,  are  covered  by  aquatic  birds,  afford- 
ing an  easy  living  to  the  poorer  classes.  Pearls  of 
great  value  abound  along  the  shores ;  while  the  shell, 
much  valued  .here,  is  worked  up  in  a  thousand  ways 
as  ornaments  and  inlaid  work. 

The  people  are  an  active,  vigorous  race,  and  very 
intelligent;  and  although  shut  up  for  so  many  centu- 
ries, isolated  from  the  outer  world,  they  are  kind  and 
hospitable  to  strangers,  carrying  their  courtesy  and  po- 
liteness to  the  greatest  extreme.  Since  the  American 
treaty  in  1854  they  have  steadily  improved  in  shipping 
and  manufactures,  freely  admitting  all  our  arts  of  peace 
and  war  to  be  introduced  among  them.  At  the  pres- 
ent time,  young  Japanese  of  the  better  classes  are  to 
be  found  traveling  in  all  parts  of  the  world  or  attend- 
ingf  the  colleges  and  academies  of  the  most  advanced 
nations,  diligently  and  intelligently  seeking  all  that 
may  advance  or  benefit  their  native  land. 

TEA    PLANT. 

A  brief  description  of  the  tea  plant,  so  assiduously 
and  profitably  cultivated  by  the  Asiatic  races,  may 
interest  the  general  reader. 

The  tea  plant  {Thea  Sinensis),  In  a  wild  state,  is 
a  bushy  shrub,  often  reaching  to  the  dignity  of  a  tree 
in   size  and   foliao;e.     In  the  cultivated  state,  in  China 


OF   THE  PACIFIC   OCEAN  141 

and  Japan,  the  plants  are  held  back,  being  pruned 
down  and  not  allowed  to  orow  higrher  than  three  to  five 
feet.  Botanists  of  to-day  rank  it  as  Cammellia  Thea 
genus,  same  as  the  Cammellia  yapoiiica;  also  bearing 
a  close  resemblance  to  the  Cammellia  Sasanqtia,  intro- 
duced in  Europe  and  America  from  China  in  181 1. 

The  plant  resembles  the  japonica  somewhat  in  its 
buds  and  flowers,  the  leaves  differing  in  being  longer, 
narrower  and  less  shiny.  It  is  an  evergreen,  and  af- 
fords from  three  to  four  crops  a  year,  the  second  pick- 
ing being  considered  the  best.  The  leaves  are  picked 
altogether  by  hand,  when  they  are  conveyed  to  drying 
floors,  the  green  varieties  being  dried  on  copper  plates 
over  slow  fires,  which  results  (not,  however,  without 
the  assistance  of  being  rolled  between  the  hands  of  the 
laborers)  in  the  closely-curled  form  found  in  nearly  all 
teas.  It  has  been  stated  that  the  green  variety  owes 
its  color  to  the  chemical  action  of  the  copper  on  the 
leaves.  Iliis  is  erroneous,  as  the  black  varieties  are 
picked  Irom  the  same  plant,  and  receive  their  color 
from  being-  allowed  to  g-o  through  a  slow  fermenting- 
process,  which  changes  the  leaves  of  the  same  plant 
from  green  to  black.  From  the  dry-houses  the  tea  is 
packed  in  lead-lined  cases,  or  put  up  in  paper  pack- 
ages, as  we  see  it  in  the  markets  of  the  world. 

Tea  was  first  discovered  in  China,  g-rowing  in  a 
wild  state,  in  the  eighth  century.  In  the  fourteenth 
year  of  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Te-Tsong,  correspon- 
ding to  the  year  783  of  our  era,  we  find  an  impost 
levied  on  tea.  Japanese  writers  state  that  the  plant 
was  first  brought  to  their  country  from  China  in  the 
ninth  centur)-. 

Of  Europeans,  the  Portuguese  were  probably  the 
first  to  discover  its  uses — in  151  7.     An  Englishman — 


142  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

one  of  the  officers  of  the  East  India  Company — speaks 
of  it  in  a  letter  to  his  company  in  1615. 

In  the  years  1870,  '71,  '72  and  '']2iy  the  imports  of 
tea  into  Great  Britain  were  about  sixty  thousand  tons 
per  annum,  valued  at  about  ^55,000,000. 

Into  the  United  States,  in  1871,  '72,  '']-^  and  '74, 
the  imports  of  tea  were  about  27,500  tons  per  annum, 
of  an  annual  value  of  about  ^20,000,000. 

CAMPHOR    TREE. 

A  valuable  indigenous  growth  of  Japan  is  the 
camphor  tree,  one  of  the  laurel  family  [Latiracea  Cam- 
phora).  It  is  native  to  the  soil  of  nearly  all  the  is- 
lands of  the  Eastern  Archipelago  and  the  Asiatic  coast. 
The  tree  grows  to  a  large  size,  with  beautiful,  wide- 
spreading  foliage,  and  bears  a  small  fruit,  not  unlike 
in  size  and  appearance  to  a  black  currant.  The  ordi- 
nary camphor  of  commerce  is  produced  by  steeping 
the  twigs,  roots,  and  other  portions  of  the  tree  in  water, 
and  then,  by  heat,  distilling  the  liquid  over  Into  con- 
densors,  where  it  deposits  in  small  white  crystals,  when 
it  is  carefully  dried  and  packed  for  shipment. 

That  of  Borneo,  Java,  Sumatra,  and  some  of  the 
Molluccas,  is  taken  from  the  tree  in  the  form  of  a  gum, 
which  exudes  from  the  limbs,  body  and  roots,  drying 
and  crystallizing  in  masses,  sometimes  weighing  ten  or 
fifteen  pounds.  This  quality  is  considered  to  be  of 
great  value  by  the  Chinese  and  Japanese,  who  readily 
pay  a  hundred  times  more  for  it  than  for  that  pro- 
duced by  distillation. 

The  wood  of  the  tree  is  of  considerable  impor- 
tance, being  worked  up  in  many  ways  into  glove  boxes, 
trunks,  chests,  and  as  a  veneer  for  all  receptacles  re- 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  143 

quiring   protection    from   the    inroads  of    the    insect 
world. 

GOVERNMENT RELIGION. 

The  system  of  government  of  the  Japanese  Em- 
pire is  that  of  an  absolute  monarchy.  The  power  of 
the  Mikado  is  absolute  and  unlimited  in  legislative,  ex- 
ecutive and  judicial  matters.  The  Great  Council 
(Daijo-Kwan),  in  which  the  Emperor  himself  presides, 
is  the  supreme  executive,  as  well  as  the  highest  legis- 
lative body.  It  is  composed  of  a  Prime  Minister,  two 
Junior  or  Vice  Prime  Ministers,  and  a  number  of  Privy 
Councillors.  The  latter,  as  a  rule,  are  either  heads  of 
the  several  executive  departments  or  other  important 
bodies.  At  present  there  exists  no  complete  severance 
between  the  legislative  and  executive  sections  of  the 
Government.  The  most  important  body  in  the  Gov- 
ernment is  the  Gen-Roin,  or  Senate,  established  in 
1875.  It  deliberates  on  legislative  matters,  but  its  de- 
cisions are  subject  to  confirmation  by  the  Great  or 
Cabinet  Council,  and  sanction  by  the  sovereign.  The 
number  of  Senators  is  unlimited  (thirty-seven  in  1883); 
they  are  chosen  from  those  who  have  rendered  signal 
service  to  the  state.  Another  body,  the  Sanji-in 
(Council  of  State),  created  in  1881,  has  the  function  of 
initiating  and  framing  bills,  and  discussing  matters 
transmitted  by  the  executive -departments,  subject  to 
deliberations  in  the  Senate.  It  also  hears  and  decides 
cases  relating  to  administration. 

The  religion  of  nearly  the  whole  of  the  lower 
classes  is  Buddhism,  which  had  76,275  priests  in  1881; 
Shintoism  had  17,851  priests.  Christianity  is  stated 
to  be  spreading  among  the  people.  School  attendance 
has  been  made  compulsory. 


144 


THE  ISLAND  WORLD 


LADRONE    ISL.'VNDS. 


Due  east  from  the  island  of  Luzon,  between  lati- 
tude 13  deg.  50  min.  and  20  deg.  50  min.  north,  and 
longitude  145  deg.  50  min.  and  147  deg.  east,  are  the 
Ladrone  or  Marian  group. 

There  are  in  all  about  twenty  islands,  of  which 
Guajan  is  the  largest,  being  about  90  miles  in  circum- 
ference. The  area  of  the  group  is  1,300  square  miles, 
with  a  population  of  8,000. 

Discovered  by  Magellan  in  1521,  they  form  a  part 
of  the  Spanish  possessions  in  the  Pacific. 

The  products  are  similar  to  the  many  islands  al- 
ready described,  with  an  abundance  of  water,  and  soil 
of  great  fertility. 

North  by  east  from  the  Ladrones  are  the  Jardines 
group,  and  north  of  these,  again,  Anson's  Archipel- 
ago. Still  further  east  and  south  we  come  to  the 
Nameless  group,  Volcano,  La  Mira,  Halcyon,  Wakes, 
Cornwallis,  and  many  other  islands  dotting  the  great 
Pacific  Sea.  In  longitude  162  deg.  60  min.  west,  and 
2  deg.  north  latitude,  there  is  Christmas  Island  ;  and 
north  by  west  from  that,  and  in  the  same  group,  we 
find  America,  Fanning,  Palmyra,  Prospect  and  Sama- 
rangf  Islands. 

To  the  north,  again,  in  latitude  15  deg.  45  min. 
north,  and  longitude  169  deg.  west,  are  the  Johnston 
Islands,  two  in  number,  and  of  considerable  commer- 
cial importance,  from  the  guano  found  there. 

BONIN    ISLANDS. 

The  Bonin  group,  between  26  deg.  30  min.  and 
27  deg.  44  min.  north  latitude,  and    142  A^^.  and    145 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  145 

deg.  east  longitude,  may  be  set  down  as  containing 
seventy  islands,  with  twenty  or  thirty  rocks  lying  be- 
tween. There  is  no  definite  data  at  hand  giving  the 
area  and  population  of  this  group,  though  it  would  be 
safe  to  set  the  former  at  500  square  miles,  and  the  lat- 
ter at  1,000. 

The  formation  is  volcanic,  the  topography  rock)' 
and  precipitous,  with  deep  water  close  to  shore.  The)-, 
have  long  been  a  resort  for  whalers  in  these  regions, 
for  wood  and  water  supplies. 

The  islands,  at  one  time,  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
seventeenth  and  the  beofinnino-  of  the  eisfhteenth  cen- 
turies,  were  used  by  the  Japanese  as  penal  colonies. 
Pell,  Buckland  and  Stapleton  are  the  largest  and  best- 
known  islands. 

Their  products  are  unimportant  at  present.  The 
group  is  claimed  by  Great  Britain,  being  taken  posses- 
sion of  by  that  power  in  1826. 

ANSON    AND    AUCKLAND    ISLANDS. 

There  are  many  island  groups,  atolls  and  barren 
isles,  hardly  as  yet  of  enough  commercial  importance 
to  require  special  or  particular  description.  Under 
this  head  is  the  Anson  archipelago,  lying  west  of  the 
Hawaiian  group ;  and  although  but  a  chain  of  small 
islets,  with  but  few  products,  it  would  be  hard,  in  this 
age  of  discovery  and  requirements,  to  predict  their 
future. 

The  Auckland  Islands,  between  latitude  50  deg. 
24  min.  and  51  deg.  4  min.  south,  and  longitude  163 
deg.  46  min.  and  164  deg.  3  min.  east,  are  of  consider- 
able importance.  They  are  about  twenty  in  number, 
several    of   them,  like  the  island   of  Auckland,   beino 


14.6  THE  ISLAND  WORLD' 

fully  30  miles  long  by  15  miles  wide.  They  are  of 
volcanic  origin,  with  an  abundance  of  water  and  tim- 
ber and  fertile  soil.  Guano  of  a  fine  quality  is  said  to 
be  in  quantity  on  some  of  the  islets.  Discovered  in 
1806,  they  remained  for  many  years  almost  unknown 
and  unoccupied,  up  to  1849,  when  they  were  granted 
by  Great  Britain  to  a  corporation,  who  used  them  prin- 
cipally as  a  whaling  station,  but  were  finally  abandoned 
in  1852.  The  northern  portion  of  the  group  is  some- 
times known  as  the  Enderby  Islands.  The  whole  group 
may  contain  an  area  of  1,000  square  miles,  with  a  pop- 
ulation of  500. 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  147 


CHAPTER   X. 


isi<a:nds 


An  island  salt  and  bare, 
The  haunt  of  seals,  and  ores,  and  seaniews 
clang. 

Milton  (^Paradise  Lost). 

ALASKA  AND  THE  ALEUTIAN  ISLANDS. 

THIS  chain  of  islands,  stretching  from  Alaska  in  a 
southeasterly  direction  to  the  shores  of  Kampt- 
chatka,  lying  between  5 1  deg.  and  56  deg.  north 
latitude,  and  163  deg.  and  188  deg.  west  longitude, 
form  almost  a  connecting  link  between  North  America 
and  Asia. 

They  are  about  fifty  in  number,  and  comprise 
within  their  limits  nearly  8,000  square  miles.  They  at 
one  time  formed  a  portion  of  the  possessions  of  Rus- 
sia in  America,  and  were,  with  Alaska,  deeded  to  the 
United  States  by  purchase  in  1867. 

Unimak  and  Ounalaska  are  the  principal  and 
largest  of  the  four  different  groups.  From  climatic 
reasons,  as  well  as  their  long  distance  from  the  civ- 
ilized world,  they  are  very  thinly  populated  and  with 
little  or  no  agricultural  cultivation.  Water  is  very 
scarce,  while  there  is  hardly  any  growth  of  timber, 
they  present  a  picture  not  at  all  inviting  to  future  pop- 


148.  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

ulation.  Some  of  the  valleys  are  well  fitted  for  graz- 
ing purposes,  abounding  with  nutritious  grasses,  while 
the  surrounding  waters  of  the  sea  teem  with  fish. 
The  whale  and  the  seal  make  these  latitudes  at  one 
time  of  the  year  a  favorite  resort,  and  are  taken  in 
great  numbers.  There  are  about  3,000  inhabitants 
in  the  Aleutian  group,  whose  existence  must  be  any- 
thing but  cheerful. 

From  their  geographical  situation,  some  writers 
and  ethnologists  have  supposed  the  Aleutian  chain  to 
have  formed  the  bridge  between  America  and  Asia, 
over  which  the  Asiatics  crossed,  gradually  peopling 
America. 

The  purchase  price  paid  by  the  United  States  to 
Russia  for  Alaska  and  the  adjoining  islands  was  $7,- 
200,000.  The  late  important  developments  being 
made  in  that  territory  in  minerals  alone,  gold,  silver,, 
copper  and  coal,  not  to  mention  the  immense  forests 
of  valuable  timber,  leaves  one  with  the  impression 
that  our  Government  did  a  wise  thing  in  its  purchase. 
Its  area,  something  over  three  and  one-half  times  that 
of  the  State  of  California,  for  which  we  paid  Mexico 
^15,000,000,  may  yet  prove  it  a  veritable  bonanza. 
Probably  not  in  an  agricultural  way,  but  in  fisheries,, 
minerals  and  timber  it  may  exceed  all  our  past  for- 
tunate experiences  in  territorial  acquisitions,  like  Cali- 
fornia, Arizona  and  New  Mexico,  etc. 

ISLANDS    OF    ST.    PAUL    AND    ST.    GEORGE. 

Two  of  the  islands,  St.  Paul  and  St.  George,  have 
been  found  to  be  the  favorite  resorts  of  the  fur  seal. 
This  was  taken  advantage  of  by  a  San  Francisco  cor- 
poration, who  leased   the   Islands    from    the    Govern- 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  i49 

ment  at  a  yearly  rental  of  $55,000.  for  the  purpose 
of  a  seal  fishery  alone.  They  are  restricted  to 
taking  but  100,000  a  year,  on  which  the  United  States 
receives  a  tax  of  $2,621^  each,  producing  in  all  a 
revenue  to  the  Government  from  rental  and  tax  of 
^317,500  per  annum. 

The  island  of  St.  Paul  is  located  in  north  laticude 
57  deg.  8  min.,  and  west  longitude  170  deg.  13  min. 
St,  George  lies  about  forty  miles  to  the  south.  From 
the  former,  80,000  seals  are  taken  each  year ;  from  the 
latter,  20,000. 

SEALS    AND    SEAL   FISHING. 

From  "Dall's   Alaska  and  its   Resources,"  pub- 
lished   in    1870,   we  learn   that  the    fur  seal   fishery, 
formerly  less  important  than  that  of  the  sea  otter,  has 
of  late  years  far  exceeded  it  in  value.     A  short  review 
of  the  history  of  this  fishery  may  not  be  out  of  place. 
At  present    the    fur    seal    are  almost  exclusively  ob- 
tained on  the  islands  of  St.   Paul    and  St.   George   in 
Behring  Sea.     A  few  stragglers  only  are  obtained  on 
the  Falkland  Islands  and  the  extreme  southwest  coast 
of  South  America.     The   case  was  formerly  very  dif- 
ferent.      Many   thousands   were    obtained    from    the 
South    Pacific    Islands    and    the    coasts    of  Chili  and 
South  Africa. 

The  Falkland  Island  seal  [Artophoca  Falklandicd) 
was  at  one  time  common  in  that  group  and  the  ad- 
jacent seas.  The  skins,  worth  fifteen  Spanish  dollars, 
according  to  Sir  John  Richardson,  were  from  four  to 
five  feet  long,  covered  with  reddish  down,  over  which 
stiff  gray  hair  projected.  They  were  hunted  especially 
on  the  Falkland  Islands,  Terra  del  Fuego,  New  Geor- 
gia, South  Shetland  and  the  coast  of  Chili. 


i^o  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

Three  and  a  half  mllHons  of  skins  were  taken 
from  Mas  a  Fuera  to  Canton  between  1793  and  1807. 
Another  species  {Artocephalus  Delandi)  formerly 
abounded  on  the  coast  of  Africa,  near  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope.  Their  fur  was  the  least  valuable  of  the 
different  kinds  of  fur  seal,  and  the  species  seems  to 
have  become  extinct.     *     ''"     '^ 

Of  the  Arctic  or  Behring  Sea  species  ( Callorpinus 
Ursinus)  not  less  than  6,000,000  skins  have  been  ob- 
tained since  1741. 

HABITS.  . 

The  Alaskan  fur  seal  formerly  extended  from  the 
ice  line  of  Behrinof  Sea  to  the  coast  of  Lower  Cali- 
fornia.  At  present  a  few  stragglers  reach  the  Straits 
of  Fuca,  where  5,000  were  said  to  have  been  killed  in 
1868,  but  the  great  majority  are  confined  to  the 
Pribyloff  Islands.  They  have  never  been  found  in 
Behring  Strait,  or  within  300  miles  of  it.  They  arrive 
at  the  islands  about  the  middle  of  June,  a  few  strag- 
glers coming  as  early  as  the  end  of  May.  They  leave 
on  the  approach  of  winter,  usually  about  the  end  of 
October.  They  are  supposed  to  spend  the  winter  in 
the  open  sea,  south  of  the  Aleutian  Islands. 

When  returning  from  their  winter  quarters  (the 
location  of  which  is  yet  unknown),  they  come  up  in 
droves  of  many  thousands  on  the  hillsides  near  the 
shore,  and  literally  blacken  the  islands  with  their  num- 
bers.    *     *     * 

METHOD    OF    KILLING    SEAL. 

The  manner  of  conducting  the  fishery  is  as  fol- 
lows: A  number  of  Aleuts  go  along  the  water's  edge, 
and  getting  between  the  animals  and  water,  shout  and 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  151 

wave  their  sticks.  The  seals  are  very  timid,  and  always 
follow  each  other  like  sheep ;  yet,  if  brought  to  bay, 
they  will  fight  bravely.  A  man  who  should  venture 
into  the  midst  of  a  herd  would  doubtless  be  torn  to 
pieces,  for  their  teeth,  though  small,  are  exceedingly 
sharp. 

A  body  of  four  or  five  hundred  having  been  sepa- 
rated, as  above,  from  the  main  assembly,  they  can  be 
driven  very  slowly  by  two  men  into  the  interior  of  the 
island,  exactly  as  a  shepherd  would  drive  his  sheep. 
Their  docility  depends  upon  circumstances.  If  the 
sun  is  out  and  the  grass  Ar^\  they  cannot  be  driven 
at  all.  If  the  day  is  wet  and  the  grass  sufficiently 
moi  t,  they  may  be  driven  several  miles.  Every  two 
or  three  minutes  they  must  be  allowed  to  rest.  Those 
who  become  tired  are  killed  and  skinned  on  the  spot 
by  the  drivers,  as  it  is  of  no  use  to  attempt  to  drive 
them.  They  would  at  once  attack  the  driver.  *  *  * 
When  the  seals  have  been  brought  to  a  suitable  place, 
they  are  left  with  some  one  to  watch  them  until  it  is 
desired  to  kill  them.  The  skins  of  old  males  are  so 
thick  as  to  be  useless.  The  Russians  restricted  the 
killing  solely  to  young  males  less  than  five  years,  and 
more  than  one  year,  old. 

No  females,  pups  or  old  bulls  were  ever  killed. 
This  was  a  necessary  provision  to  prevent  their  ex- 
termination. The  seals  are  killed  by  a  blow  on  the 
back  of  the  head  with  a  heavy  sharp-edged  club. 
This  fractures  the  skull,  which  is  very  thin,  and  lays 
them  out  stiff  instantly.  The  Aleut  then  plunges 
his  sharp  knife  into  the  heart,  and  with  wonderful 
dexterity,  by  a  few  sweeps  of  his  long  weapon,  sepa- 
rates the  skin  from  the  blubber  to  which  it  is  attached. 
The  nose  and  wrists  are  cut  around,  and  the  ears  and 


132  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

tail  left  attached  to  the  skin.  When  the  operation  is 
over  the  skin  is  of  an  oval  shape,  with  four  holes, 
where  the  extremities  protruded.  They  are  then 
taken  out  and  laid  in  a  large  pile,  with  layers  of  salt 
between  them.  After  becoming  thoroughly  salted, 
they  are  done  up,  two  together  in  .square  bundles, 
and  tied  up  with  twine.  They  are  then  packed  for 
transportation  to  London.  No  guns  are  used  in  kill- 
ing the  seal.  Indeed,  guns  are  not  only  unnecessar)-, 
but  injurious,  for  a  hole  in  the  skin  diminishes  its 
value  one-half  All  the  fur  seals  are  dressed  in 
London.  They  were  worth  in  the  raw^  state,  in  1868, 
about  $7  each  in  gold.  (Now.  1884,  .said  to  be  worth 
Sio  each.)  A  machine  has  been  invented  by  which 
the  skin  is  shaved  very  thin,  the  roots  of  the  stiff  hairs 
are  cut  off  and  they  may  then  be  brushed  away. 
The  down,  w^hich  does  not  penetrate  the  skin  to  any 
distance,  remains,  and  is  dyed  black  or  a  rich  brown. 
This  is  the  state  in  which  we  see  the  skins^at  the 
furriers. 

VANCOUVER    ISLAND. 

Vancouver  Island,  in  and  between  latitude  48 
deg.  18  min.  and  50  deg.  55  min.  north,  and  longitude 
123  deg.  15  min.  and  128  deg.  30  min.  w^est,  has  an 
area  of  about  14,000  square  miles,  with  a  population  of 
15,000. 

The  principal  products  are  coal  and  timber  of  a 
fine  quality.  Of  the  former,  immense  quantities  are 
produced. 

Although  my  purpose  throughout  has  been  to  re- 
frain altogether  from  allusion  or  description  of  lands 
not  located  strictly  as  ocean  islands,  yet  so  grand  and 
interesting  is  Puget  Sound,  that  the  following  short 
description  may  be  of  interest  to  the  general  reader. 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  '53 

THE    PUGET    SOUND    REGION. 

Puget  Sound  abundantly  deserves  its  reputation 
for  remarkable  beaut)-.     Comn^odore  Wilkes  .s  qmte 
within  the  bounds  of  truth  in  his  statement:   "Nothmg 
can  exceed  the  beauty  of  these  waters.        venture  no- 
thing in   saying  there  is  no  country-  m  the  -orfd    ^at 
possesses  waters  equal  to  these."     W,th  a  length  of 
probably  not  more  than  two  hundred  mdes,  the  sound 
Ls    a    coast    line    of    more    than    fifteen    hundred 
n,iles       It   covers  an   area   of    about    two    thousand 
square  miles,    or   a   little    more   than    twice    the    ex- 
tent of  Cook  County,  in  which  Chicago  is.     Its  waters 
are  very  deep,  and  at  almost  any  point  vessels  of  the 
largest  size  may  approach   to  land   unt.l  the.r  s,des 
touch  the  shore,  before  their  keels  touch   the  bottom. 
It  has  hundreds-of  beautiful  islands  and  bays.     It  lies 
as  a  deep  basin  between  two  lofty  ranges  of  mountains 
-the  Cascade  Range  on   the  east,  and  the  Coast  or 
Olympian  Range  on  the  west.     The  gateway  opening 
into  it  from  the  Pacific  Ocean  is  the  Straits  of  Juan  de 
Fuca  (the  name  of  their  discoverer),  which  are  ninety- 
five  miles  long  and  an  average  of  eight  miles  in  width 
The   sound  itself  was  named  for  Peter  Puget    one  of 
Vancouver's  lieutenants,  who  explored  it.      1  his  great 
navigator  gave  to  another  of  his  lieutenants.   Rainier, 
the  honor  of  calling  the  grandest  mountain  peak  in  the 
country  by  his  name,  though  it  is  now  more  generally 
called  by  the  Indian  nameTacoma  (nourishing  breast), 
while  it  is  claimed  that  its  true  Indian  name  isTanoma 
.almost  to  heaven) .     It  is  the  highest  peak  but  one  m 
the  United  States,  Mount  Blanca   in  Colorado  being 
just  twenty  feet  higher.     The  latter,  however    is  not 
so   massive,  so  grand,  so  overwhelming  to   the  view. 


154  '        THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

since  no  beholder  looks  upon  it  except  from  an  eleva- 
tion of  as  much  as  seven  thousand  feet,  while  the  for- 
mer, at  the  town  of  New  Tacoma,  is  seen  from  the  sea 
level,  rising  grandly  14,444  feet,  and  covered  perpetu- 
ally with  snow  and  ice,  its  glaciers  surpassing,  in  ex- 
tent and  grandeur,  anything  to  be  seen  in  the  Alps. 
Senator  Edmunds,  who  visited  the  mountain  last  year, 
says  of  it:  "I  have  been  through  the  Swiss  mountains, 
and  I  am  compelled  to  own  that — incredible  as  the 
assertion  may  appear — there  is  absolutely  no  compari- 
son between  the  finest  effects  that  are  exhibited  there, 
and  what  is  seen  in  approaching  this  grand  isolated 
mountain.  I  would  be  willing  to  go  five  hun- 
dred miles  aorain  to  see  that  scene.  This  conti- 
nent  is  yet  in  ignorance  of  the  existence  of  what 
will  be  one  of  the  grandest  show  places,  as  well  as  a 
sanitarium." 

QUEEN    CHARLOTTE    ISLANDS 

Northwest  of  Vancouver,  one  hundred  and  thirty 
miles,  and  eighty  miles  from  the  coast,  are  the  Queen 
Charlotte  Islands.  Like  Vancouver,  they  belong  to 
British  Columbia. 

There  are,  in  all,  about  twenty  islands  in  the 
group,  the  principal  being  Prevost,  Graham,  North 
and  Moresby, 

Area  of  the  group,  5,000  square  miles;  popula- 
tion, 6,000.  The  climate  is  good,  with  an  abundance 
of  water,  and  pine  and  cedar  timber.  Copper,  iron  and 
coal  are  found. 

Many  good  harbors  are  to  be  met  with  in  the 
group,  while  the  bays  and  inlets  around  the  islands 
teem  with  fish. 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  i55 

ISLANDS— WEST   COAST   UNITED    STATES. 

TheFarralones  consist  of  two  clusters,  comprising 
seven  islands,  the  nearest  of  which  is  about  twenty 
miles  from  the  Golden  Gate.  They  are  all  destitute  of 
soil  and  vegetation,  consisting  of  bare,  rugged  rocks, 
which  are  the  resort  of  immense  numbers  of  sea  lions 
and  myriads  of  birds,  the  eggs  of  which  were  a  source 
of  ^reat  profit  to  those  who  collected  them 

The  southernmost  of  the  group  is  the  largest, 
containing  about  two  acres,  and  is  also  nearest  to  the 
the  coast.  On  this  there  is  a  first-class  lighthouse  to 
warn  the  mariner  of  the  dangers  of  the  locality. 

No  water  fit  for  drinking,  except  such  as  was  col- 
lected from  rains  and  fogs,  was  obtainable  on  any  ot 
of  these  islands  until  1867.  when  some  of  the  egg  gath- 
erers discovered  a  spring  on  the  main  island,  near  the 

liehthouse.  c  r-  vc 

There  are  no  other  islands  on  the  coast  of  Califor- 
nia north  of  Point  Concepcion.  South  of  that  headland 
there  are  two  groups,  the  most  northerly  consisting  of 
the  islands  of  San  Miguel  on  the  west,  Santa  Rosa  in 
the  center,  and  Santa  Cruz  on  the  east. 

Santa  Cruz,  the  largest  of  this  group,   is  twenty- 
one  miles  in  length  and  four  miles  wide,  and  has  a 

rupfsred  surface.  , 

Santa  Rosa  is  fifteen  miles  in  lengtln  and  nearly 
ten  miles  wide.  Its  surface  is  tolerably  level,  and 
produces  a  thick  crop  of  coarse  grass  and  ow  bushes, 
but  its  steep,  rugged  sides,  which  rise  nearly  two  hun- 
dred feet,  almost  perpendicularly,  afford  no  good  land- 

""^  S  Miguel  is  nearly  eight  miles  long  and  from 
two  to  three  miles  wide.     It  is  almost  a  barren  rock. 


J56  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

but  several  thousand  sheep  manage  to  subsist  upon 
the  Hmited  pasturage  growing  on  the  island.  About 
forty  miles  southeast  from  the  above  cluster,  and  off 
the  coast  opposite  Los  Angeles  County,  are  the  islands 
of  San  Nicolas  and  Santa  Barbara,  and  still  farther  in 
the  same  direction  are  Santa  Catalina  and  San  Clemente, 

San  Nicolas,  the  most  western,  is  nearly  sixty 
miles  from  the  main  land.  It  is  eight  miles  in  length 
by  about  four  wide.  Its  surface  is  a  flat  ridge,  nearly 
600  feet  high,  tapering  down  in  rocky  ledges  to  the  sea. 

Santa  Barbara  Island  is  nearly  circular  in  outline, 
and  about  two  miles  in  diameter  at  the  base,  its  sur- 
face on  the  top  containing  about  thirty  acres. 

Santa  Catalina,  the  largest  island  of  this  group,  is 
about  400  miles  south  from  San  Francisco  and  twenty- 
five  miles  from  San  Pedro,  its  nearest  point  to  the 
main  land.  It  is  nearly  twenty-eight  miles  in  length, 
about  seven  miles  wide  on  its  southern  and  two  miles 
on  its  northern  end.  Its  surface  is  rough  and  uneven, 
some  points  being  3,000  feet  above  the  sea  level ;  but 
it  contains  several  small  valleys  which  are  under  culti- 
vation. '^^  '^'  There  is  a  small  stream  of  water 
running  through  its  entire  length ;  it  also  has  a  num- 
ber of  springs  of  fresh  water.     «•     « 

San  Clemente,  the  most  southern,  lies  about  fifty 
miles  from  the  main  land  of  San  Diego  county.  It 
is  twenty-two  miles  in  length  by  about  two  miles  wide. 
*    '•'    It  contains  neither  soil,  vegetation  or  water.    *    * 

(Cronise,  Natural  Wealth  of  California.) 

PACIFIC    ISLANDS    OF    MEXICO. 

Of  the  islands  off  the  coast  of  Lower  California, 
and  in  the  Gulf  of  California,  belonging  to  Mexico, 
there  is  little  to  be  said. 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  1^7 

In  the  Gulf,  Carmen  and  Tiburon  are  the  largest 
and  most  important.  The  former  has  long  been  cele- 
brated for  the  unmese  quantities  of  salt  exported, 
while  of  the  latter  but  little  is  known,  a  hostile  tribe 
of  Indians  being  in  possession. 

On  Carmen,  several  hundred  yards  back  from  the 
seashore,  nature  has  placed  a  salt  lake,  probably  one- 
half  a  mile  in  diameter,  a  great  natural  evaporating 
pan,  which  furnishes  a  continuous  supply  of  salt,  that 
covers  its  surface  like  a  crust  of  orhsteninof  snow. 
This  is  raked  together  in  snowy  heaps  and  taken 
away  on  hand-cars,  running  on  several  tramways  built 
out  into  the  lake.  So  rapid  is  the  evaporation  and 
accumulation  of  the  salt  that  hardly  the  length  of  a 
day  transpires  before  another  supply  is  ready  for  re- 
moval. This  salt  marsh  has  been  in  operation  for 
over  twenty  years,  and  the  supply  is  undiminished. 

Off  the  coast  of  Lower  California  the  islands  of 
Guadalupe,  Cerros,  San  Benito,  Lobos  and  Santa 
Margarita  are  of  some  size  and  importance.  Now 
but  the  homes  of  innumerable  wild  goats,  the  day 
may  come  when  the  hner  breeds  of  the  Angora  will 
be  introduced,  and  make  these  barren  spots  the  source 
of  valuable  industries. 

Further  south,  the  island  groups  of  Tres  Ma- 
rias, Revilliagigedo,  etc.,  are  to  be  met  with,  and 
although  not  of  great  extent,  are  of  considerable 
value  from  the  pearl  and  other  fishing  grounds  found 
there.  The  fine  timber  of  the  tomano  and  prima 
vera,  much  used  in  the  manufacture  of  furniture  and 
cabinet  ware  on  the  Pacific  coast,  is  exported  in  large 
quantities. 

The  pearl  fisheries  of  the  Gulf  of  California  and 
the  Bay  of  Panama  form  quite  an  industry,  the  pearls 


iS8  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

and  shell  found  often  being  of  the  best  quality. 
Pearl,  the  shell,  and  fisheries,  have  been  noticed  at 
some  length  in  another  portion  of  this  work,  although 
some  of  the  suggestions  made  in  the  chapters  on  that 
subject  might  be  applied  in  these  localities  with  great 
profit. 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  i59 


CHAPTER  XI. 


ISI^APiDS 


A  wilderness  of  sweets. 

Milton  {Paradise  Lost), 

THE    SANDWICH    ISLANDS. 

THE  Hawaiian  group,  lo  in  number,  although  some 
writers  say  there  are  thirteen,  is  between  lati- 
tude i8  deg.  54  min.  and  23  deg.  34  min.  north, 
and  154  deg.  50  min.  and  164  deg.  32  min.  west  longi- 
tudes. The  total  area  is  near  6,000  square  miles  and 
the  population  some  65,000. 

The  rapid  growth  of  this  litde  island  kingdom, 
and  that  within  a  very  few  years,  into  commercial  im- 
portance, is  but  a  sample  of  what  will  be  done  in  the 
island  world  in  the  near  future.  The  topographical 
features  of  the  group,  the  few  and  small  streams, 
with  valleys  of  no  very  great  extent,  with  a  wasteful 
destruction  of  nearly  all  the  valuable  indigenous 
products  in  the  past,  with  the  low  order  of  inhab- 
itants, has  barred  their  progress,  yet  the  magic  wand 
of  American  enterprise  has  but  touched  them,  and 
the  islands  are  now  in  practical,  successful  commercial 
existence. 

The  principal  export  is  sugar.     Of  this  valuable 


i6o  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

product  It  is  safe  to  say  that   150,000,000  pounds,  or 
75,.ooo  tons  will  be  produced  this  year. 

GEOLOGY. 

The  geological  formation  of  the  group  is  alto- 
gether volcanic.  Two  celebrated  volcanoes,  Kilauea 
and  Mauna  Loa,  are  noted  for  their  eruptions,  and 
in  some  of  their  convulsions  the  world-famed  out- 
bursts of  yEtna  and  Vesuvius  "pale  their  ineffectual 
fires."  Thus,  in  the  island  of  Hawaii,  according 
to  the  Journal,  Geological  Society,  1856,  in  1840  a 
deluge  of  lava  broke  out  ten  miles  below  the 
crater  of  Kilauea.  It  spread  from  one  to  four  miles 
wide,  and  reached  the  sea  at  a  distance  of  thirty  miles 
in  three  days,  and  for  fourteen  days  plunged  in  a  vast 
fiery  cataract  a  mile  wide  over  a  precipice  of  500  feet. 
In  1843  '^  similar  stream  flowed  from  the  summit  of 
Mauna  Loa,  and  in  1855  the  lava  broke  out  at  a  spot 
2,000  feet  below  the  summit,  on  the  opposite  side  to 
Kilauea,  and  continued  for  ten  months,  overflowing  an 
area  of  200,000  acres.  The  main  stream  was  sixty-five 
miles  long,  from  one  to  ten  miles  wide  and  from  ten 
to  300  feet  in  depth.  The  records  do  not  show  any 
eruptions  of  Mauna  Loa  previous  to  1832.  There 
were  outbursts  in  1851,  '52,  '55  and  '59.  In  1868 
one  occurred  accompanied  by  a  severe  earthquake. 
The  last  was  in  1877. 

SUGAR    CANE. 

The  wonderful  sugar-producing  qualities  of  this 
little  island  group,  now  something  like  70,000  tons  per 
annum,  is  gradually  calling  the  attention  of  the  world 
to  what  might  be  done  on  other  islands  of  the  Pacific. 


THE    KING    OF    ST.    GEORGE — ALASKA. 


OF   THE  PACIFIC   OCEAN  i6i 

Many  of  these  garden  spots  are  peculiarly  adapted  to 
the  growth  of  cane  ;  the  soil,  climate  and  moisture 
necessar)^  to  its  successful  cultivation  being  found  on 
every  hand. 

The  sugar  cane^  sacchartcm  officinartmi,  is  a  pe- 
rennial plant,  of  the  family  of  grasses,  cultivated  sor- 
ghum and  broom-corn  being  familiar  examples  of  the 
species.  The  cane  is  not  found  native  in  any  countr)-, 
never  producing  seeds,  and  is  only  reproduced  from 
cuttings.  There  are  many  varieties,  but  the  best  is 
the  Otaheite,  or  Bourbon,  grown  successfully  in  the 
Society  group. 

Sugar  is  mentioned  at  a  very  early  period,  being 
used  then  only  as  a  medicine.  It  was  introduced  into 
Persia  about  the  ninth  century.  In  the  tenth  century 
it  was  cultivated  and  formed  an  article  of  trade  in 
Spain. 

It  was  first  cultivated  in  Madeira  in  1420,  and 
shortly  afterwards  in  the  Canary  Islands.  After  the 
discover)- of  America  it  was  introduced  into  Mexico. 
San  Domingo,  Brazil,  etc.,  and  about  the  same  time 
into  Africa  and  the  Indian  Archipelago.  In  our  own 
country  it  was  first  cultivated  by  the  Jesuits,  near  New 
Orleans,  in  1751. 

HISTORY. 

In  regard  to  the  discovery^  of  these  islands  by 
Captain  Cook,  I  am  led  to  believe  that  he  was  by  no 
means  the  original  discoverer,  but  that  like  many  other 
navigators  on  the  great  oceans  of  the  world,  it  was 
a  discovery  for  him,  while  in  truth  it  may  have  been 
known  to  others  many  ages  previous. 

it  is  believed  that  the  Hawaiian  Islands  were  first 
discovered  by  the  Spaniards,  and  were  often  seen  by 


i62  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

the  Spanish  galleons  on  their  yearly  passages  between 
Acapulco  and  Manilla  in  the  sixteenth -century.  Accord- 
ing to  tradition,  two  Spanish  vessels  from  Mexico  were 
wrecked  on  the  island  of  Hawaii  about  the  year  1525. 
Their  crews  mixed  with  the  native  race,  whose  de- 
•scendants,  it  is  said,  can  even  now  be  distinguished  by 
their  complexion. 

The  Spanish  charts  of  the  Pacific  Ocean,  dated  in 
the  sixteenth  century,  give  the  position  of  the  islands 
with  some  accuracy,  and  call  them  by  names,  describ- 
ing the  appearance  which  each  island  presented  to  the 
Spanish  navigators  when  seen  from  their  vessels. 
These  charts  were  known  in  England  when  Captain 
Cook  sailed  on  his  voyages  of  discovery ;  and  as  the 
London  charts  of  1777,  the  year  before  Cook  first  vis- 
ited the  islands,  record  their  existence,  this  English 
navigator  cannot  be  considered  as  their  discoverer. 

About  the  year  1740,  according  to  tradition,  a 
ship  landed  a  crew  of  white  men  on  the  island  of  Oahu. 
The  natives  knew  the  value  and  uses  of  iron  before 
Cook  arrived.  They  stole  his  boat  and  broke  it  up  to 
g-et  the  iron  from  it.  in  Kealeakua  Bay,  where  his  ships 
anchored  in  January,  1779,  and  where  he  was  killed  in 
a  combat  with  the  natives  on  the  14th  of  February, 
while  negotiating,  on  the  shore,  for  the  return  of  his 
boat. 

The  French  navi^jator,  La  Perouse,  who  also  was 
killed  by  Pacific  savages,  visited  the  islands  in  1786. 
In  1 790  the  first  trading  ship  arrived — the  American 
ship  Elemior.  The  English  explorer,  Vancouver,  ar- 
rived in  1792,  and  brought  from  California  the  first 
cattle  that  the  islands  had  seen.  In'  1793  the  harbor 
of  Honolulu  was  discovered  and  entered  by  a  trading 
vessel   from  the  west  coast  of  America.     In  1820  the 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  163 

first  whaler  arrived — the  ship  Ma?y,  from  Nantucket. 
The  Hghthouse  of  Honolulu  was  first  lighted  in  1869. 

The  first  Protestant  missionaries  arrived  at  the 
islands  in  1820,  by  the  brig  Thaddeiis,  which  sailed 
from  Boston  in  18 19.     '''       '^      '•' 

They  were  well  received  by  the  islanders,  who 
were  superstitious  idolaters,  living  under  the  tyranny 
of  their  chiefs  and  priests.  Since  1820  the  American 
churches  (up  to  1873)  have  sent  nearly  one  hundred 
and  fifty  men  and  women  as  missionaries  to  these  is- 
lands, and  have  spent  a  million  -^f  dollars  for  their 
evang-elical  civilization. 

One  result  of  the  investment  is  the  controlling  in- 
fluence of  Americans,  etc. 

(Bliss's  "  Paradise  in  the  Pacific") 
COTTON. 

The  cotton  plant  (genus  gossypitmi)  is  an  indige- 
nous growth  of  nearly  all  the  intertropical  countries, 
there  being  as  many  as  eight  varieties  of  the  plant — 
one  (the  gossypiiun  sandwichsense)  being  native  in  the 
Sandwich  Islands. 

In  India,  cotton,  its  cultivation  and  uses,  have  been 
known  since  prehistoric  times,  and  was  introduced 
from  there  into  Japan  in  the  seventh  century,  and  into 
Europe  by  the  Mohammedans  in  the  tenth  century. 
In  the  United  States  it  was  known  as  far  back  as  1536 
— the  product  from  the  latter  country  being  now  about 
one  and  one-half  million  tons  per  annum.  The  finer 
qualities — that  with  the  longest  fibre — grown  in  the 
United  States,  on  the  isles  along  the  coast  of  Georgia 
and  some  of  the  other  seaboard  States,  known  as  sea- 
island  cotton,  would  naturally  suggest  it  as  one  of  the 
staples  to  be  cultivated  in  the  South  Sea. 


j64      ■  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 


PRINCIPAL    ISLANDS. 


Hawaii,  although  the  largest  island  in  the  group 
(having  an  area  of  nearly  four  thousand  square  miles), 
has  but  one  harbor  of  any  note — that  of  Hilo.  There 
are  many  indentations  along  the  shores  that  might 
serve  as  good  anchoring  for  vessels,  but  the  sterility 
of  the  back  country  has  so  far  prevented  their  occupa- 
tion and  settlement. 

Next  in  size  is  Mau,  with  about  603  square  miles 
of  area.  There  is  little  to  be  said,  except  that  the 
lands  are  extremely  productive  where  placed  under 
cultivation. 

On  Oahu,  third  in  size,  whose  area  is  522  square 
miles,  is  located  the  principal  port  of  entry  and  harbor, 
as  well  as  the  capital  city  of  the  kingdom,  Honolulu. 
There  is  good  anchorage  here,  with  a  barrier  reef  of 
coral  and  lava  prptecting  it  on  every  side. 

Deep-water  soundings  are  found  on  ever)^  hand 
before  entering,  while  inside  the  average  depth  may 
be  set  down  at  about  twenty  feet. 

MAUNA    LOA. 

The  volcanoes  of  Mauna  Loa  and  Kilauea,  located 
on  the  island  of  Hawaii,  have  already  received  some 
attention  in  this  work. 

Kilauea  is  sometimes  claimed  to  have  the  largest 
active  volcanic  crater  in  the  world,  having;  a  circumfer- 
ence  of  over  eight  miles,  and  a  depth,  from  the  rim  of 
the  basin  to  the  burnintr  lava,  of  one  thousand  feet. 
The  elevation  of  the  crater  is  4,000  feet,  while  its  fiery 
neighbor,  Mauna  Loa  (both  being  located  on  the 
mountain   of  that   name)  towers  into  the  skies   13,760 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  165 

feet  above  the  sea.  In  regard  to  the  size  of  volcanic 
craters,  it  might  be  said  that  in  the  eastern  part  of  the 
island  of  Java  a  crater  is  to  be  found  twelve  to  fifteen 
miles  in  circumference ;  that  of  Kilauea  does  not  ex- 
ceed nine  miles.  On  the  eastern  peninsula  of  the  is- 
land of  Maui,  one  of  the  Sandwich  group,  is  located 
the  summit  crater  of  Mauna  Haleakala,  10,200  feet 
above  the  sea  level.  Following  the  rim  of  the  once 
fiery  cauldron,  the  circumference  is  all  of  twenty-seven 
miles,  while  the  depth  from  the  edge  to  the  bottom  of 
the  great  pit  is  two  thousand  feet.  As  far  as  known, 
this  is  the  largest  volcanic  crater  in  the  world.  Of 
Kilauea,  Dana  says  : 

BURNING    LAKE    OF    KILAUEA. 

Kilauea  is  a  deep  pit  in  the  sides  of  Mount  Loa. 
The  gentle  slopes  of  the  dome  in  this  part  scarcely 
vary  from  a  plain,  and  the  crater  appears  like  a  vast 
gulf  excavated  out  of  the  rock-built  structure.  Al- 
though there  is  no  cone,  the  country  around  is  slightly 
raised  above  the  general  level,  as  if  by  former  erup- 
tions over  the  surface ;  but  this  is  hardly  apparent 
without  extended  and  careful  examination. 

The  traveler  perceives  his  approach  to  the  crater 
in  a  few  small  clouds  of  steam  rising  from  fissures  not 
far  from  his  path.  While  gazing  for  a  second  indica- 
tion, he  stands  unexpectedly  upon  the  brink  of  the  pit. 
A  vast  amphitheatre,  seven  miles  and  a  half  in  circuit,^ 
has  opened  to  view.  Beneath  a  gray,  rocky  precipice 
of  650  feet,  forming  the  bold  contour,  a  narrow  plain 
of  hardened  lava  (the  "black  ledge")  extends  like  a 
vast  gallery  around  the  whole  interior.  Within  this 
gallery,  below  another  similar  precipice  of  340  feet, 


i66  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

lies  the  bottom,  a  wide  plain  of  bare  rock  more  than 
two  miles  in  length. 

The  eye  naturally  ranged  over  the  whole  area  for 
something  like  volcanic  action,  as  it  is  usually  de- 
scribed. But  all  was  singularly  quiet.  In  the  dark  plain 
that  forms  the  bottom  there  was  little  to  attract  atten- 
tion beside  the  utter  dreariness  of  the  place,  excepting 
certain  spots  of  a  blood-red  color,  which  appeared  to 
be  in  constant  yet  gentle  agitation.  Instead  of  behold- 
ing a  sea  of  molten  lava  "rolling  to  and  fro  its  fiery 
surge  and  flaming  billows,"  we  were  surprised  at  the 
stillness  of  the  scene.  The  incessant  motion  in  the 
blood-red  pools  was  like  that  of  a  cauldron  in  constant 
ebullition.  The  lava  in  each  boiled  with  such  activity 
as  to  cause  a  rapid  play  of  jets  over  its  surface.  One 
pool,  the  largest  of  the  three  then  in  action,  was  after- 
wards ascertained  by  survey  to  measure  1,500  feet  in 
one  diameter,  and  1,000  in  the  other;  and  this  whole 
area — into  which  the  capitol  grounds  at  Washington 
miofht  be  sunk  entire — was  boilino-  as  seemed  from 
above,  with  nearly  the  mobility  of  water.  Still  all  went 
on  quietly.  Not  a  whisper  was  heard  from  the  fires 
below.  While  vapors  rose  in  fleecy  wreaths  from  the 
pools  and  numerous  fissures,  and  above  the  large  lake 
they  collected  into  a  broad  canopy  of  clouds,  not  unlike 
the  snowy  heaps  or  cumuli  that  lie  near  the  horizon  on 
a  clear  day,  though  changing  more  rapidly  their  fanci- 
ful shapes.  On  descending  afterwards  to  the  black 
ledge  at  the  verge  of  the  lower  pit,  a  half-smothered, 
gurgling  sound  was  all  that  could  be  heard  from  the 
pools  of  lava.  Occasionally  there  was  a  report  like 
that  of  musketry,  which  died  away  and  left  the  same 
murmurino;  sound — the  stifled  mutterinofs  of  a  boilino; 
fluid.     Such  was  the  appearance  of  Pele's  pit  in  a  day 


OF   THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  267 

view,  at  the  time  it  was  visited  by  the  author  (in  No- 
vember, 1840). 

At  night,  though  less  quiet,  the  scene  was  one  of 
indescribable  sublimity.  We  were  encamped  on  the 
edge  of  the  crater,  with  the  fires  in  full  view.  The 
large  cauldron,  in  place  of  its  bloody  glare,  now  glowed 
with  intense  brilliancy,  and  the  surface  sparkled  with 
shifting  points  of  dazzling  light  occasioned  by  the  jets 
in  constant  display.  A  row  of  small  basins  on  the  south- 
east side  of  the  lake  were  also  jetting  out  their  glowing 
lavas.  Two  other  pools  in  another  part  of  the  pit 
tossed  up  their  molten  rock  much  like  the  larger  caul- 
dron, and  occasionally  burst  out  with  jets  forty  or  fifty 
feet  in  height.  The  broad  canopy  of  clouds  above  the 
pit,  which  seemed  to  rest  on  a  column  of  wreaths  and 
curling  heaps  of  lighted  vapor,  and  the  amphitheatre 
of  rocks  around  the  lower  depths,  were  brightly  illumi- 
nated from  the  boilingf  lavas,  while  a  lurid  red  tinofed 
the  distant  parts  of  the  inclosing  walls,  and  threw  into 
shades  of  darkness  the  many  cavernous  recesses.  And 
over  this  scene  of  restless  fires  and  fiery  vapors,  the 
heavens,  by  contrast,  seemed  unnaturally  black,  with 
only  here  and  there  a  star  like  a  dim  point  of  light. 
The  next  niorht  streams  of  lava  boiled  over  from  the 
lake,  and  formed  several  glowing  lines  diverging  over 
the  bottom  of  the  crater.  Towards  mornino-  there  was 
a  dense  mist,  and  the  whole  atmosphere  seemed  on 
fire.  Through  the  haze  the  lakes  were  barely  distin- 
guished by  the  spangles  on  the  surface  that  were 
brightening  and  disappearing  with  incessant  change. 

ISLAND    FORMATION. 

Among  the  groups  of  Polynesia  the  Hawaiian  ex- 
ceeds all  others   in  geological   interest.     The  agency 


t68  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

of  both  fire  and  water  in  the  formation  of  rocks  is 
exempUfied  not  only  by  results,  but  also  by  processes 
now  in  action,  and  the  student  of  nature  may  watch  the 
steps  through  the  successive  changes.  -  He  may  de- 
scend to  the  boiling  pit  and  witness  the  operations  in 
the  vast  laboratory  with  the  same  deliberation  as  he 
would  examine  the  crucible  in  a  chemist's  furnace.  Thus 
the  manner  in  which  mountains  are  made  and  islands 
built  up  becomes  a  matter  of  observation.  The  vol- 
canic dome  may  be  seen  in  process  of  accumulation 
from  overflowing  lavas,  and  may  be  traced  as  it  in- 
creases in  size.  Again,  disruptions  of  the  accumu- 
lated rock  may  be  observed,  followed  by  their  disap- 
pearance in  the  lavas  below. 

While  these  volcanic  mountains  are  still  extending 
their  limits  in  one  part  of  the  group,  in  others  those 
changes  are  finely  illustrated,  which  they  undergo 
through  the  action  of  water,  gradual  decomposition 
and  other  allied  causes,  and  these  effects  are  in  every 
stage  of  progress.  In  some  instances  the  slopes  retain 
the  even  surface  of  the  lava  stream  ;  in  others,  they  are 
altered  in  every  feature — the  heights  are  worn  down, 
the  whole  surface  gorged  out  with  valleys,  and  the 
tlepth  of  these  furrowings  of  time,  indicate  that  the 
several  islands  differ  widely  in  the  length  of  the  period 
since  they  were  finished  by  the  fires  and  left  to  the 
action  of  the  elements. 

Moreover,  the  coral  formations  of  the  shores  pre- 
sent us  with  reefs  now  in  progress  from  the  growing 
zoophytes,  and  there  are  also  reefs  elevated  many 
feet  above  the  sea,  having  a  close  resemblance  to  beds 
of  limestone.  Besides  these,  there  are  hills  of  drift  sand- 
rock,  of  coral  origin.  The  various  facts  illustrate,  there- 
fore, all  the  results  of  coral  growth  and  accumulation. 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  i6<^ 

The  group  is  consequently  the  key  to  Polynesian 
geology.  It  combines  all  the  features  which  are  else- 
where widely  scattered,  and  they  are  so  exhibited  in 
progressive  stages  as  to  afford  mutual  illustration. 
An  island  like  Tahiti,  so  broken  into  peaks  and 
ridges,  may  excite  wonder  and  doubt.  The  Hawaiian 
group  suggests  the  same  difficult  problem  as  Tahiti, 
but  an  intelligent  solution  is  at  the  same  time  pre- 
sented for  our  contemplation  and  study, 

(Dana,  Geol.,  Wilkes'  Exp.  E.xpedition. ) 
ISLANDS    PACIFIC    COAST    OF    SOUTH    AMERICA. 

Off  the  west  coast  of  South  America  there  are  at 
least  300  islands,  becoming  more  numerous  and  in 
larger  groups  as  we  go  towards  Cape  Horn. 

Those  off  the  coast  of  Ecuador,  the  Albemarle, 
James.  Chatham.  Indefatigable,  Hood,  Charles,  Naf- 
boro,  etc.,  have  already  been  alluded  to  in  this  work, 
under  the  head  of  Galapagos. 

GUANO. 

Lying  near  the  coast  of  Peru,  and  only  about 
twelve  miles  from  the  main  land,  between  13  deg.  and 
14  deg.  south  latitude,  and  containing  but  a  few  square 
miles  of  area,  are  the  celebrated  guano  group,  the 
Chincha  Islands.  It  may  not  be  unininteresting 
to  state  here,  that  nearly  20,000,000  tons  gauno 
have  been  exported  to  Europe  and  America  from  this 
little  group  alone.  The  shipments  were  commenced 
in  1 841,  and  continued  on  a  scale  of  great  magnitude 
up  to  1872,  when  the  guano  deposits  were  practi- 
cally exhausted.     Between  the  years   1853  and  1872, 


ijo  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

8,000,000  tons  were  shipped.  It  is  said  that  the  govern- 
ment of  Peru  was  enriched  from  this  source  alone. 
If  we  admit  Peru  as  having  received  ^5  per  ton  for 
these  deposits,  it  will  be  seen  that  bonanzas  do  not 
always  lie  in  mineral  veins. 

As  a  fertilizer  for  the  agriculturist,  guano  has  no 
superior — one  ton  of  it  being  equal  to  fifteen  to  thirty- 
four  tons  of  the  ordinary  manures  now  in  use. 

There  is  no  doubt  but  many  islands  of  this  char- 
acter will  ultimately  be  found  scattered  over  the 
broad  expanse  of  the  South  Seas.  As  guano  is  worth 
from  ^30  to  ;^4o  per  ton  in  Europe  and  America,  it 
does  not  require  a  great  deal  of  figuring  to  show  that 
any  country  or  company  making  a  discovery  and  loca- 
tion of  this  kind,  will  not  only  enrich  themselves,  but 
benefit  the  world  at  larcre.  The  islands  of  Ferrol, 
Guanape,  Lobos,  Tierra,  Mengon,  Pachacama,  San 
Lorenzo  and  Zorati,  also  belonging  to  Peru,  are  of 
some  importance. 

The  larger  islands  off  the  west  coast  of  Chili  are 
of  great  value,  not  only  as  important  fishing  grounds, 
but  for  the  many  agricultural  products,  and  fine  tim- 
ber they  produce. 

The  principal  are  Byron,  Cambridge,  Campana, 
Chiloe,  Clarence,  Desolation,  Duke  of  York,  Guay- 
tecas,  Hanover.  Huafo.  Landfall,  Madre  de  Dios, 
Mocha,  Narborough,  Noir,  Queen  Adelaide,  Santa 
Inez,  Skyring  and  Wellington. 

Chiloe  is  probably  the  most  important,  as  well  as 
one  of  the  largest  of  the  group,  having  an  area  of 
5,200  square  miles,  and  inhabited  by  some  10,000 
people.  It  was  first  discovered  by  Mendoza,  in  1588. 
Great  attention  is  paid  to  agriculture;  wheat,  corn  and 
potatoes  being  the  favorite  crops.     With  an  abundant 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  iji 

rainfall,  and  lands  not  too  mountainous  or  hilly,  Chiloe 
has  long  proved  a  source  of  wealth  to  her  people. 
Many  vessels,  whalers  and  others,  resort  to  these 
islands  for  their  supplies,  while  from  many  of  the 
islets  lying-  between,  considerable  quantities  of  guano 
are  shipped. 

Some  of  the  isles  were  at  a  former  period  favorite 
resorts  for  the  fur  seal,  but  like  the  islands  of  Juan 
Fernandez  and  Mas  a  Fuera,  which  were  also  ereat 
sealing  grounds  in  their  day,  they  have  been  driven 
away,  and  now  make  their  breeding  resorts  on  other 
groups. 

EASTER    ISLAND. 

Due  west  from  the  northern  coast  of  Chili,  some- 
thing like  2,300  miles,  lies  this  little  dot  in  the  South- 
ern Sea.  It  is  located  in  south  latitude  27  dee-  6min., 
and  west  longitude  109  deg.  17  min.,  contains  an  area 
of  about  seventy  square  miles,  and  a  population  of 
1,000  people,  of  the  Polynesian  type.  Its  discover)^ 
is  sometimes  credited  to  Captain  Cook,  in  1774,  who 
visited  it  in  that  year ;  by  others,  to  Roggewein,  the 
Dutch  navigator,  who  located  and  mentions  it  as  early 
as  1722. 

The  island  is  of  evident  volcanic  oricrin,  three 
prominent  craters  of  past  eruptions  being  already  dis- 
covered. The  soil  in  the  valleys,  and  some  portions 
fringing  the  sea  shore,  is  very^  ferdle  where  placed  un- 
der cultivation.  There  is  but  litde  forest  erowth.  and 
water  is  scarce. 

Of  late  years  the  island  has  assumed  quite  a 
prominence,  from  the  remarkable  features  and  evi- 
dences of  a  prehistoric  race  found  there,  to  the  great 
delight  of  scientists  and  the  sunken  continent  theorists. 


172  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

Hundreds  of  statues  and  broken  columns  are  said  to 
be  scattered  over  the  land,  some  of  the  former  being 
of  the  human  figure,  fully  forty  feet  in  height,  and 
eight  to  ten  feet  broad  across  the  shoulders.  Many 
have  fallen  down,  and  others  are  rapidly  succumbing 
to  the  abrading  influences  of  the  elements,  while  others 
aofain  are  found  located  in  the  volcanic  craters  them- 
selves,  and  thought  to  indicate  the  ancient  race,  as  fire 
worshippers.  The  rude  sculpturing  is  from  the  com- 
mon rock  found  on  the  island,  many  unfinished  tablets 
and  statues  being  discovered  in  the  quarries,  as  if  the 
inhabitants  had  been  rudely  interrupted  in  their  work 
by  some  awful  volcanic  outburst,  or  earthquake  con- 
vulsion. 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  173 


CHAPTER   XII. 


ISI^AJSD    PRODUCTS    A?<D    RBSOVRCBS. 


A  pearl  may  in  a  toad's  head  dwell, 
And  may  be  found  too  in  an  oyster  shell. 

Bun  VAN  [Apology  for  his  Book.) 

PEARLS    AND    PEARL    FISHING, 

F^ARL  fishing  has  been  a  curious  and  valuable 
industry  for  ages,  reaching  away  back  into  dim 
antiquity.  The  great  demand  of  the  present 
day,  not  only  for  the  pearls,  but  for  the  mother-of-pearl 
shell,  has  made  the  industry  a  more  valuable  one  than 
diamond  mining.  The  innumerable  uses  that  the  shell 
is  put  to  for  ornament  and  for  useful  purposes,  has 
created  a  continually  increasing  demand  for  it  in  all 
parts  of  the  world.  Among  the  islands  of  the  Pacific, 
fisheries  are  found  of  vast  extent,  producing  pearls 
and  shell  of  the  finest  quality.  In  fact,  some  of  these 
beds  have  furnished  already  bushels  of  the  gem,  rang- 
ing in  value  from  one  to  thirty  thousand  dollars  apiece; 
while  shell,  when  properly  cured  and  cared  for,  meets 
with  ready  sale  in  the  principal  markets  of  the  world 
at  about  five  hundred  dollars  per  ton. 


ly^  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 


HABITS. 


The  pearl  oyster  has  habits  pecuHar  to  itself;  and 
as  far  as  the  writer  has  observed,  all  effort  to  change 
them  or  make  any  improvement  in  their  condition  or 
locality,  has  never  been  effected  by  man.  All  attempts 
to  propagate  or  transplant  the  oyster  from  the  locali- 
ties where  first  found,  have  proved  a  signal  failure. 
They  are  born  and  live  and  die,  at  or  near  their  homes, 
and  are  not  found  hunting  for  fields  or  pastures  new, 
or  very  far  from  the  place  of  their  nativity.  It  is  a 
mistake,  however,  to  suppose  that  the  oyster  does  not 
or  cannot  move.  The  fallacy  that  they  attach  them- 
selves in  strings  and  clusters  to  the  coral  caves,  in, 
under  and  beyond  the-  surf  in  favorite  localities,  and 
never  move  from  them,  has  been  proven  to  the  con- 
trary. Places  that  have  been  cleared  of  the  oyster 
altogether,  by  fishing,  have  been  known,  particularly 
after  a  great  storm,  to  become  thickly  settled  with  new 
shell,  and  that,  too,  of  a  large  size  and  apparent  full 
growth ;  proving  that  they  can  swim,  float,  and  move 
around  as  their  needs  and  habits  dictate.  Their  fa- 
vorite breeding  ground  in  the  South  Sea,  and  this  only 
in  particular  localities,  seems  to  be  in  and  beyond  the 
surf  of  some  of  the  atolls,  or  horse-shoe  shaped  islands, 
that  have  a  great  lagoon  in  the  center,  and  to  and 
from  which,  the  tide  ebbs  and  flows  without  hindrance. 
In  such  places  the  small  shell,  from  the  size  of  a  pea 
to  that  of  a  shilling,  may  be  seen  in  great  numbers, 
tossed  about  in  the  surf  and  on  the  waves;  and  again 
making  their  way  with  the  inflowing  tide  to  the  lagoons 
of  the  atolls  ;  there  to  sink  to  the  bottom  and  form  beds 
similar  to  those  of  the  oyster  of  our  own  country.  On 
the  outside  reefs  and  in  deep  water,  say  about  twenty 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  jj^ 

fathoms,  that  being  the  greatest  depth  reached  by  the 
native  divers,  the  shell  is  of  large  size,  sometime.^ 
twelve  to  eighteen  inches  in  diameter,  and  when 
opened  out  measure  from  two  to  three  feet  across. 
Generally  speaking  they  are  of  no  value  except  as 
curiosities,  never  containing  pearls,  and  have  not  that 
beautiful  prismatic  coloring  found  in  the  regular  shell. 

PEARL    DREDGING. 

Pearl  fishing,  as  practiced  in  different  parts  of  the 
world  now-a-days,  is  rather  a  precarious  business,  be- 
ing accompanied  by  great  danger  and  many  hard- 
ships. The  poor  divers  soon  wear  out,  and  the  slow 
accumulation  of  shell,  with  here  and  there  a  pearl  of 
great  value,  makes  the  product  worth  all  it  will  bring 
in  the  market.  It  is  not  probable  that  much  impetus 
or  safety  could  be  given  to  the  business  by  the  general 
use  of  submarine  armor  either,  as  it  has  yet  to  be  man- 
aged by  hand,  and  therefore  slow  progress  is  made. 
The  many  thousands  of  square  miles  of  pearl  grounds 
to  be  found  among  the  islands  of  the  Pacific,  a  great 
deal  of  it  as  yet  untouched,  should  suggest  a  more 
rapid  and  effective  mode  of  fishing.  With  this  idea  in 
view  I  have  consulted  many  of  our  practical  mechanics 
and  engineers,  who  are  engaged  in  building  dredging 
machines,  as  also  those  who  manage  them  in  their 
practical  workings  in  our  rivers  and  bays,  as  well  as 
on  the  line  of  the  canal  now  beine  cut  through  the 
isthmus  at  Panama.  From  authorities  like  these  I  have 
confirmed  the  idea  that  it  is  perfecdy  practicable  to 
handle  nearly  all  the  pearl  fisheries  of  the  Pacific 
islands  by  means  of  steam  dredgers.  By  such  a 
method  Va-.t  quantities  of  shell  could  be  brouo-ht  to 


ij6  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

the  surface  from  depths  not  yet  reached  by  the  divers, 
and  be  opened,  cleaned  and  assorted  with  a  celerity 
that  would  no  doubt  astonish  the  natives. 

In  the  interior  lagoons,  fishing  in  this  manner 
would  seem  an  easy  matter,  as  the  water  is  always 
smooth,  not  being  affected  even  by  the  great  storms 
sometimes  experienced  in  these  latitudes. 

After  reachinof  the  aofe  of  seven  or  eio-ht  years, 
the  pearl  oyster  appears  to  sicken  and  die,  when  it 
opens  and  spills  whatever  is  contained  in  the  shells. 
This  being  the  case,  it  is  a  natural  query  as  to  what 
becomes  of  the  pearls.  They  are  never  brought  up 
by  the  div^ers,  who  are  only  seeking  for  perfect  shell, 
and  with  the  limited  time  they  are  under  water — sel- 
dom exceeding  two  minutes — they  break  off  and  ga- 
ther such  as  can  be  easily  reached,  and  are  glad  to 
come  to  the  surface  for  a  breathing  spell.  If  the  di- 
vers, with  or  without  armor,  were  employed  only  as 
prospectors,  to  locate  the  oyster  banks,  and  steam 
dredgers  brought  into  play  for  the  effective  work,  there 
is  no  doubt  that  the  business  could  be  made  immensely 
profitable. 

PEARL    DIVING, 

Pearl  fishing  has  not  as  yet  been  brought  to  a 
system,  among  the  Pacific  isles,  commensurate  with  its 
value.  True,  the  business  has  been  prosecuted  to  a 
great  extent  at  the  Paumatou  group,  but  hundreds  of 
other  favorable  localities  in  these  seas  have  hardly  been 
prospected,  and  many  are  unknown. 

At  the  island  of  Ceylon,  under  the  encouragement 
of  the  Enoflish  Government,  the  Cinoralese  have  be- 
come  experts  in  the  business,  although  using  nothing 
in   the   way   of  machinery  to  assist  in  its  prosecution. 


MARQUESAS    ISLANDERS. 


^■, 


OF   THE  PACIFIC   OCEAN  m 

When  diving  in  deep  water,  die  Cingalese  use  a  spKt 
sdck  or  piece  of  bamboo  clasped  over  the  nose,  and 
stuff  their  ears  with  wax  or  cotton,  which  leaves  both 
hands  free  to   gather  and   break   off  the   shell,  when 
found    hanging  to  the  coral  and  attached  to  the  rock. 
(In  the  South   Seas  the  business   is   conducted  in  an 
informal  w^ay.)     In  their  fishing  canoes  there  are  gene- 
rally four  persons— two  to  manage  and  guide  the  boat 
and  to  assist  the  divers.      Of  the  latter,  two   form  the 
balance   of   the  crew  and  dive  alternately,  thus  giving 
each  an   opportunity  to  rest.      When  descending  intcj 
deep  water,  a  heavy  stone  is   generally  used,  attached 
to  one  foot  by  a  loose  strap,  and  with  sack  and  stone 
attached  to  a  small  line,  which  is   paid  out  or  hauled 
in   as   may  be  required,  by  the  assistants  in  the  boat. 
Where  shell  are  at  all  plentiful,  the  sack  is  soon  filled, 
the  foot  slipped  from  the  strap  around  the  stone,  a  jerk 
o-iven   as   a   signal  to  the  line,  and  the  diver  comes  to 
die  surface  like  a  cork,  while  the  weight  and  sack  of 
shell    are    hauled    up    at    their    leisure.      During    the 
breathing  spell,  requiring   at   least  thirty  mmutes,   the 
other    diver    is    making    his    preparations,    and    goes 
through  the  same  process.    When  one  or  two  hundred 
of  the  pearl  oysters  have  been  collected,  they  are  care- 
fully opened  by  means  of  a  blunt,  pointed  knife,  great 
care   being  exercised    to    preserve  the  edges  of  the 
shell   as  well  as  a  careful  inspection  of  the  oyster  and 
its  covering  for  any  inlying  pearls.     These  are  some- 
dmes  found  imbedded  in  the  oyster  itself,   but,  gene- 
rally  speaking,  lie  loose   in   the  shell.      One  hundred 
pearls  are  often  found  in  a  shell,  but  are  mostly  small 
and    of  little    value.     They   are   pierced   and  put  on 
strings,  like  beads,  and  used  in  nearly  all  countries  as 
ornaments,  known  to   the  trade  as  seed  pearls.     The 


ijS  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

divers  do  not  go  down  in  deep  water,  or  to  a  depth  of 
forty  to  eighty  feet,  over  ten  or  twelve  times  a  day, 
the  strain  upon  the  brain  and  lungs  fatiguing  them  to 
the  last  degree.  When  through,  the  boats  are  pulled 
for  the  shore,  the  empty  shell  piled  carefully  away  in 
the  shade,  so  as  to  dry  slowl)- — it  being  found  that  this 
method  preserves  all  the  beautiful  coloring  of  the 
mother-of-pearl,  and  brings  a  much  higher  price  in  the 
market.  These  slow  accumulations  of  pearl  and  shell 
are  kept  up  during  fme  weather,  and  at  times  when 
the  temperature  of  air  and  water  are  nearly  alike. 
When  not  already  contracted  for,  as  is  the  case  in 
nearly  all  pearl  fisheries,  the  products  are  kept  to 
await  the  advent  of  some  trading  vessel,  or  (as  has 
unfortunately  been  the  case  among  many  of  the  groups 
of  islands)  await  the  descent  of  some  bold  and  ruthless 
buccaneer. 

NOTED    FISHERIES    ANI>   GEMS. 

Pearl  fishing  is  conducted  on  a  much  more  formal 
scale  at  Ceylon,  and  opposite  on  the  Cordatchy  shore, 
at  the  Sooloos  and  Bahrein  Islands,  and  in  the  Persian 
Gulf.  Boats  are  regularly  employed  at  these  places, 
of  ten  or  fifteen  tons  burden,  with  greater  numbers  in 
the  crews  than  I  have  mentioned.  On  the  Condatchy 
shore,  pearl  fishing  has  been  regularly  followed  as  a 
business  for  over  two  thousand  years. 

The  price  of  pearls  has  changed  very  much  in 
modern  times,  probably  from  changes  in  manners  and 
fashions,  and  the  admirable  imitations  that  can.  be  ob- 
tained at  a  low  price.  One  of  the  most  famous  pearls 
was  bought  at  Catifa  in  Arabia,  by  Tavernier,  for  the 
fabulous  sum  of  ^550,000.  The  one  said  to  have  been 
dissolved   and    drank    by    Cleopatra   was    valued   at 


OF   THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  ijg 

$403,645.  Another  of  similar  size  and  value  was  cut 
in  two  parts  and  used  as  ear-rings  on  the  statue  of 
Venus  in  the  Pantheon  at  Rome. 

Probably  the  largest  pearl  ever  found  belonged  to 
the  late  Mr,  Hope.  It  measured  two  inches  in  length, 
and  had  a  circumference  of  four  inches,  weighing  1,800 
grains. 

One  found  in  the  Paumotous,  South  Sea,  was  sold 
to  Queen  Victoria  for  $30,000. 

That  of  Sir  Thomas  Gresham,  ground  up  and 
eaten  at  a  banquet  given  to  the  Spanish  ambassador, 
added  a  value  to  the  dinner  of  some  $45,000. 

It  is  estimated  that  the  Paumotou  group  of  the 
South  Sea  has  already  furnished  over  thirty  thousand 
tons  of  merchantable  shell,  and  some  millions  of  dol- 
lars worth  of  pearls,  to  the  world. 

PROPOGATION. 

The  subject  of  propogating  and  cultivating  the 
pearl  oyster  has  received  a  good  deal  of  scientific  in- 
vestigation for  many  years,  but  up  to  the  present  has 
met  with  but  little  success.  The  following,  taken  from 
a  recent  publication,  would  indicate  that  a  problem  that 
has  puzzled  the  w^orld  for  ages  is  about  to  be  solved: 

Some  time  back  the  French  Government  sent 
the  Secretary  of  the  College  of  France  to  Tahiti  to 
study  the  best  means  of  preventing  the  exhausting  of 
the  pearl  oyster  beds  at  Papeet.  The  results  of  his 
experiment  tend  to  show  that  this  jewel  bearing 
bivalve  may  be  cultivated  in  a  way  similar  to  that 
practiced  in  the  case  of  its  edible  relative.  Like  the 
European  and  American  oyster,  the  pearl  oyster  is 
pronounced  by    Mr.  Bouchon    Brandely   to   be    uni 


i8o  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

sexual   and   to   be   physiologically  constructed  in    the 
same  manner.     The  Mollusk  Polynesia    has  also  the 
power  of  re-attaching    itself  to    the  coral    reef  when 
cast  back  into  the  sea  by  the  coral  fishers  in  the  event 
of  the  smallness  of  its    size  proving  it  to  be  worth- 
less.    The   experiments    also  tend    to   show  that    the 
pearl  oyster  found  around  the   coasts   of   the    French 
islands  of  Oceanica  will  thrive  just  as   well   in   parks 
and  beds  only  six  or  eight  feet  beneath  the  surface,  as 
in  the  deepest  water.      As  the  oyster  is  unisexual  it  is 
easy  to  produce  artificial  fecundation.     All  that  is  neces- 
sary is  to  bring  the  male  spawn  (the  milk-like  fluid  found 
in  an  oyster  at  certain  seasons  of  the  year)  in  contact 
with    the    female    spawn ;    a    glass    of  sea-water   will 
suffice    for   this    operat  on.     It   is   easy  to  distinguish 
the   one   from   the   other,  as   the  spawn,  when  mixed 
with   a   little   water,  shows   a  granular  formation  per- 
fectly visible  to  the  naked  eye,  while    the   male^  spawn 
retains   its   milk-like   appearance.     A   few   days    after 
the  fecundation,  appreciable  results  show  them.selves  in 
the  form  of  microscopic  oysters ;    the  water  must   be 
frequently  removed,  and  as  soon  as  the  bivalves  have 
attained   to  a  visible  size  they  can  be  placed  in  parks, 
where  they  are  to  remain  until  fully  developed.     The 
results,  considering  the  smallness  of  the   expense   in- 
volved,   of  establishing    artificial    beds    of   the    pearl- 
bearing  oyster  in   French   Polynesia,  would  be  of  in- 
estimable value,  for  not  only  does   this  bivalve   yield 
the  gem  so  highly  prized   by  the  ladies,   but    also   the 
mother-of-pearl,  which  the  industrial  art  has   a   thous- 
and and  one  ways  to  utilize.     The  pearl    is   in    reality 
mother-of-pearl,  produced  under  special  circumstances. 
If  the  shell  of  tht;  mollusk  shall   be  pierced,  or  should 
a  grain  of  sand   or   other  foreign    substance    find    its 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  i8i 

way  into  it,  a  growth  of  mother-of-pearl  is  formed 
either  to  stop  the  hole  in  the  shell  or  to  protect  the 
delicate  flesh  of  the  mollusk  from  contact  with  the 
foreign  substance.  There  is  almost  always  a  speck 
of  sand  or  something  of  that  sort  in  the  center  of  a 
pearl,  and  the  shells  which  contain  large  excrescences 
of  mother-of-pearl  usually  show  outward  marks  of 
damage.  The  oyster  may  even  be  forced  to  produce 
plants  and  mother-of-pearl  by  introducing  some  foreign 
substance  into  it,  or  by  piercing  the  shell  in  such  a 
way  as  to  lay  bare  the  flesh,  but  great  care  must  be  taken 
to  do  this  without  in  any  way  injuring  the  bivalve.  A 
great  regularity  of  form,  a  brilliant  white  color  with 
reflections  similar  to  those  of  the  opal,  and  size,  are 
qualities  that  give  the  pearl  its  value.  They  are  apt, 
however,  to  suddenly  lose  their  brilliancy,  but  this 
evil  is  not  without  a  cure,  for  if  a  pigeon  is  made  to 
swallow  such  a  damaged  pearl,  and  killed  within  a  few 
hours  afterward,  it  will  be  found  in  its  stomach,  re- 
stored to  all  its  original  luster,  a  result  due  to  the 
action  of  the  gastric  juice  of  the  fowl  and  the  in- 
testines. Care  must  be  taken  not  to  leave  the  pearl 
too  long ;  in  the  space  of  twenty-four  hours  it  will  lose 
one-third  of  its  weight. 

WHALE    FISHERIES. 

For  a  long  period,  many  years  before  the  revolu- 
tionary war,  our  people  were  noted  for  their  push  and 
enterprise  in  whale  fisheries.  No  nation  has  been 
able  to  compete  with  them  in  a  prosecution  of  a  busi- 
ness that  has  simply  become  stupendous.  As  early  as 
1774,  Burke,  in  his  great  speech  on  American  affairs, 
paid  a  high  compliment  to   the  energy  and   enterprise 


i82  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

of  the  American  people.  He  said:  "  As  to  the  wealth 
which  the  colonists  have  drawn  from  the  sea,  by  their 
fisheries,  you  had  all  that  matter  fully  explained  at 
your  bar.  You  surely  thought  these  acquisitions  of 
value,  for  they  seemed  to  excite  your  envy  ;  and  yet 
the  spirit  by  which  that  enterprising  employment  has 
been  exercised  ought  rather,  in  my  opinion,  to  have 
raised  esteem  and  admiration.  And  pray,  sir,  what  in 
the  world  is  equal  to  it  ?  Pass  by  the  other  parts,  and 
look  into  the  manner  in  which  the  New  England  peo- 
ple carry  on  the  whale  fishery.  While  we  follow  them 
among  the  trembling  mountains  of  ice,  and  behold 
them  penetrating  into  the  deepest  frozen  regions  of 
Hudson's  Bay  and  Davis'  Straits,  while  we  are  looking 
for  them  beneath  the  arctic  circle,  we  hear  that  they 
have  pierced  into  the  opposite  region  of  polar  cold  ; 
that  they  are  at  the  antipodes,  and  engaged  under  the 
frozen  serpent  of  the  South.  Falkland  Island,  which 
seemed  too  remote  and  too  romantic  an  object  for  the 
grasp  of  national  ambition,  is  but  a  stage  and  resting- 
place  for  their  victorious  industry.  Nor  is  the  equi- 
noctial heat  more  discouraofinor  to  them  than  the  accu- 
mulated  winter  of  both  poles.  We  learn  that  while 
some  of  them  draw  the  line  or  strike  the  harpoon  on 
the  coast  of  Africa,  others  run  the  longitudes  and  pur- 
sue their  gigantic  gam^e  along  the  coast  of  Brazil,  No 
sea  but  what  is  vexed  by  their  fisheries.  No  climate 
that  is  not  witness  of  their  toils.  Neither  the  perse- 
verence  of  Holland,  nor  the  activity  of  France,  nor  the 
dexterous  and  firm  sagacity  of  English  enterprise,  ever 
carried  this  most  perilous  mode  of  hardy  industry  to 
the  extent  to  which  it  has  been  pursued  by  this  recent 
people  ;  a  people  who  are  still  in  the  gristle,  and  not 
hardened  into  manhood." 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  183 

This  great  interest  was  checked  for  a  time  during- 
the  revolutionary  war,  but  was  prosecuted  with  re- 
newed ardor  as  soon  as  peace  was  declared.  The 
waters  of  the  southern  seas  have  long  been  famous  for 
the  abundance  of  the  black-headed  sperm  whale ;  not 
away  towards  the  frozen  pole,  but  within  the  tropical 
circle  and  in  the  waters  surrounding  the  islands  of  the 
South  Sea.  The  fisheries  in  nearly  every  portion  of 
these  regions  are  followed  with  great  success  and 
profit,  the  black  whale  being  taken  as  well  as  the 
sperm,  in  great  numbers.  These  localities  are  favorite 
feeding  and  breeding  grounds,  the  prolific  animal  life, 
the  immense  growth  of  the  squid,  the  favorite  food  of 
the  sperm,  the  immense  number  of  marine  animalculse, 
the  principal  sustenance  of  the  black  whale,  make  a 
resort  where  mammals  delight  to  make  their  homes. 

Whale  fishine  has  been  so  often  and  so  well  des- 
cribed,  the  minutest  particulars  being  gone  into,  that 
the  subject  has  become  hackneyed,  and  is  only  alluded 
to  here  as  one  of  the  many  prolific  sources  of  industry 
and  wealth  offered  to  enterprise  in  the  southern  seas. 


THE    TURTLE    AND    ITS    HABITS. 

Many  of  the  island  groups  of  the  South  Sea  are 
noted  for  the  great  number  of  turtle  that  frequent  their 
shores.  They  are  wonderful  navigators,  with  very  re- 
tentive memories,  and,  like  the  seal  and  sperm  whale, 
do  not  make  any  new  locations,  but  return  year  after 
year  to  the  places  of  their  birth,  and  make  almost  the 
same  spots  their  feeding  and  breeding  grounds.  These 
exact  habits  have  made  the  business  of  turtle  fishing 
certain  and  profitable,  not  only  as  an  article  of  food, 
but  for  the  valuable  oil  they  contain,  and  for  the  shell, 


i84  '  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

which  modern  processes  have  rendered  of  great  value. 
The  tortoise,  too,  with  its  valuable  coverino^,  is  much 
souQfht  after,  and  the  shell  worked  into  beautiful  orna- 
ments  all  over  the  world. 

The  food  of  the  turtle  is  the  sea-moss  growing  on 
the  coral  reefs,  and  the  young  beche-de-mer,  forming 
their  principal  repast.  The  female,  when  about  to 
lay,  which  occurs  once  a  year,  chooses  the  time  when 
the  moon  is  full,  and  is  watched  and  guarded,  during 
this  interesting  process,  by  her  mate,  who  lays  "off 
and  on"  just  outside  of  the  surf-line.  Selecting  a  por- 
tion of  the  beach  with  a  sunny  exposure,  she  waddles 
ungracefully  to  a  point  about  ten  yards  beyond  the  line 
of  high  tide,  proceeds  to  excavate  a  place  in  the  warm 
sand  something  larger  than  her  own  body  in  diameter, 
and  in  the  center  about  two  feet  deep.  Having  ar- 
ranged her  nest  in  a  satisfactory  manner,  she  deposits 
the  eggs,  about  one  hundred  in  number,  and  in  size  a 
little  smaller  than  a  billiard  ball.  The  nest  is  then 
filled  in  with  sand  and  levelled  over,  and  great  care 
and  attention  exercised  in  obliterating  all  traces  of  the 
sand  having  been  disturbed.  After  taking  all  these 
precautions,  she  hies  herself  to  her  mate,  and  they 
swim  contentedly  away. 

If  she  is  disturbed  during  her  preparation  for 
hatching,  a  retreat  is  made,  and  she  will  not  be  seen 
again  for  nine  days  ;  if  again  interfered  with,  she  will 
remain  away  for  a  like  period  ;  and  if  still  again  dis- 
turbed, will  seek  some  other  favorite- spot  or  island, 
and  will  not  return  to  this  particular  breeding  place 
until  the  coming  year. 

If  these  places  of  incubation  are  watched,  in  about 
a  month  the  young  turtle  will  be  found  digging  their 
way  out  of  the  nest  and  making  for  the  sea.     At  this 


OF   THE  PACIFIC   OCFAN  iSj 

time  they  are  about  the  size  of  one  of  our  silver  dol- 
lars, and  are  quite  lively  and  quick  in  their  movements 
— which  seems  only  a  wise  provision  of  nature,  as  they 
have  many  enemies  to  contend  with. 

THE    TORTOISE. 

The  Galapagos  are  also  celebrated  for  the  great 
number  of  land  tortoise  that  make  their  homes  on  those 
islands.  They  are  of  the  genus  Testudo,  and  are  alto- 
gether inhabitants  of  the  land  ;  of  little  value,  except  as 
food. 

The  tortoise  [Testudo  iiibricata),  whose  shell  is  so 
beautiful  and  valuable,  is  a  species  of  sea  turtle,  and 
with  similar  habits.  The  shell  of  the  tortoise  covers 
the  back  in  plates  overlapping  each  other  like  tiling, 
and  in  its  natural  state  is  about  one-eighth  of  an  inch 
in  thickness.  It  has  the  property  of  being  molded  in 
any  form  at  a  heat  of  2 1 2  degrees,  and  retaining  the 
given  shape  on  cooling.  Many  tons  of  the  shell  are 
exported  to  Europe  and  America,  where  it  is  worked 
into  the  many  ornamental  and  useful  forms  we  meet 
with  in  the  stores.  This  species  is  seldom  found  in 
the  west  lonofitudes  of  the  Pacific. 

SPONGE    FISHERIES. 

Sponges,  classed  by  some  writers  as  belonging 
to  the  marine  species  of  vegetation,  and  by  others  to 
the  marine  animal  kingdom,  a  species  of  the  noopkytes, 
have  long  formed  an  important  article  of  trade  in  all 
parts  of  the  world.  The  Bahamas,  in  the  West  Indies, 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  the  Mediterranean  and  Red  Seas, 
the  Levant,  Green  Turtle  Bay,  the  Orient,  with   some 


j86  the  island  world 

other  localities,  have  for  many  years  had  almost  a 
monopoly  of  the  sponge  trade.  I  again  refer  to  Mr. 
Sterndale,  whose  personal  experiences  and  writings 
are  of  considerable  interest.  Among  the  profitable 
industries  of  the  coral  seas,  the  collection  of  sponges 
is  not  the  least  important.  To  fish  for  sponges  with 
success  requires  a  certain  degree  of  practice,  as  they 
are  very  difficult  to  recognize  in  the  water  when  in  a 
live  state.  They  grow  on  the  coral,  and  very  much 
in  the  crevices  of  it,  and  are  not  by  any  means  con- 
spicuous, as  they  look  like  a  part  of  the  stone. 
When  removed  they  are  heavy,  slimy,  hard,  and  black 
as  tar.  The  best  of  them  are  of  the  form  of  a  mush- 
room, and  are  found  from  the.  size  of  a  man's  fist  up 
to  two  feet  in  diameter.  In  these  latitudes  they 
usually  lie  within  the  lagoons,  in  water  of  a  depth  from 
one  to  ten  fathoms.  They  are  inhabited  by  animal- 
culse,  which  in  the  process  of  cleaning  are  decom- 
posed and  washed  away.  In  order  to  effect  this  ob- 
ject upon  a  sandy  beach  where  the  tide  ebbs  and  flows, 
a  number  of  forked  sticks  are  driven  into  the  sand, 
and  upon  them  are  fastened  slender  poles,  as  a  sort 
of  frame-work;  from  these,  sponges  are  suspended 
by  strings  in  such  a  manner  that  when  the  tide  is  in, 
the  sponges  are  floating  in  It ;  when  the  tide  is  out, 
they  are  exposed  to  the  wind  and  sun.  In  the  latter 
case,  the  animalculae  die  and  decay,  and  by  alternate 
sorchings  and  washings,  the  sponge  becomes  cleaned 
and  bleached,  as  well  as  softened,  in  consequence  of 
the  removal  of  the  glutinous  creatures  which  had  in- 
habited It.  When  prepared  in  this  manner,  the  usual 
rate  of  barter  among  the  islands  where  they  are 
chiefly  obtained,  is  four  large  sponges  for  one  yard 
of  calico.     I    have  found  that  they  were  greatly  im- 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  187 

proved  both  in  color  and  softness  by  being-  washed  in 
hot  fresh  water,  which  had  been  previously  strongly 
impregnated  with  the  alkali  of  wood  ashes. 

The  better  way  has  been  found,  as  practiced  on 
the  Mediterranean  and  at  the  Bahamas,  to  use  a 
weak  solution  of  muriatic  acid,  which  not  only  effec- 
tually frees  it  of  animalculae,  but  removes  the  last 
traces  of  lime  adhering  to  the  sponge. 


i88  THE  ISLAND  li'OJ^LD 


CHAPTER   XFI. 


isi.ain;»  products*  at^^d  re^sovrcc^ 


Rocks  are  rough,  but  smiling  there 
Th'  acacia  waves  her  yellow  hair, 
Lonely  and  sweet,  nor  loved  the  less 
For  flow'ring  in  a  wilderness. 

Moore,  (Lalla  Rookh.) 
THE    ROBBER    CRAB. 

I  WAS  a  good  deal  interested  during  our  voyage, 
in  the  many  tales,  legends  and  experiences  so 
ready  to  the  sailor  tongue,  some  of  which  must  be 
listened  to  and  taken  with  a  grain  of  salt.  Yet  at 
times  I  was  able  to  verify  what  at  first  seemed  to  be 
some  very  hard  tales.  Thus,  at  Vanikoro,  one  of  the 
Santa  Cruz  group,  where  v/e  remained  for  nearly  ten 
days,  the  great  land-crab  of  the  South  Sea  was  met 
with,  known  here  by  the  name  of  "Koviu."  It  was 
ascertained  to  be  the  Birgus  latro,  the  Anamoura  of 
the  Crustacse  family,  or,  in  plainer  terms,  and  univer- 
sally used  in  the  Pacific,  the  Land  or  Robber  Crab. 
Some  of  the  species  met  with  were  over  two  feet 
long  and  about  eighteen  inches  across.  They  live 
altogether  on  the  land,  seldom  taking  to  the  water, 
although  perfectly  at  home  in  that  element.  Their 
nests  are  made  among  the  roots  of  the  cocoanut  tree, 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  i8q 

and  in  the  little  caves  and  openings  among  the  rocks 
and  coral,  and  are  nicely  arranged  for  ease  and  com- 
fort, being  lined  with  the  fibrous  covering  of  the 
cocoanut.  During  the  day  they  are  seldom  seen,  se- 
lecting night  for  their  peregrinations. 

AS    A    GOURMAND.  * 

Shrewd  and  cunning  to  a  high  degree,  they  seldom 
miss  the  hatching  out  of  the  young  turtle,  whose  nests 
they  watch  with  almost  maternal  solicitude.  But  for 
a  somewhat  different  purpose — that  of  making  a  re- 
past of  the  tender  young  turtles,  as  they  are  scudding 
for  the  water,  and  which  they  devour  with  the  greatest 
gusto.  I  am  told  that  one  of  the  reasons  of  the  ex- 
treme caution  of  the  female  turtle,  when  selecting 
places  to  deposit  her  eggs,  is  an  instinctive  fear  of  this 
highwayman.  True,  the  crab  does  not  care  for  the 
eggs,  but,  as  the  sailors  say,  when  the  young  turtle 
are  coming  out,  the  "pirate  never  misses  a  trick." 

AS    A    LOVER    OF    COCOANUTS. 

Of  course  the  "robber"  does  not  depend  upon 
this  mode  of  getting  a  living  at  all  seasons.  Such  op- 
portunities occur  only  during  the  hatching  season  of 
the  turtle,  which  is  but  once  a  year.  Another  of  the 
favorite  methods  the  crab  resorts  to  for  obtainin^^  food, 
is  the  continuous  g-rowth  of  the  cocoanut.  Climbino- 
the  trees  with  great  skill  and  a  surprising  quickness, 
he  shears  off  the  fruit  from  the  stem,  selecting  such 
nuts  as  are  nearly  ripe.  After  obtaining  about  one 
dozen  in  this  manner,  and  which  are  allowed  to  fall  to 
the  ground,  he  descends  the  tree,  and,  with  his  great 


igo  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

strong  claws,  strips  the  covering  from  the  fruit,  and 
selects  the  end  where  there  are  several  eyes  or 
openings  in  the  shell,  provided  by  nature  for  the  easy 
rooting  or  sprouting  of  the  young  tree  ;  then,  forcing 
some  of  the  fingfers  of  its  o-reat  claws  througfh  these 
into  the  nut,  he  deliberately  hammers  it  on  the  rock 
or  coral  until  the  shell  bursts  open,  when  the  expected 
feast  becomes  an  easy  matter.  Two  or  three  gener- 
ally serve  for  the  morning's  meal,  the  balance  being 
transported  to  the  nest  as  a  reserve.  When  breaking 
the  shells  they  must  exert  great  force  and  power,  as 
the  reverberation  of  the  blows,  along  the  shore,  may  be 
heard  for  a  half  mile.  All  that  I  have  related  is  per- 
formed with  a  method,  foresight  and  skill,  almost  hu- 
man. 

A  late  writer  says  (now  speaking  of  a  larger 
marine  crab) :  "I  had  heard  of  these  giants,  but  I  had 
no  idea  that  they  attained  this  enormous  size.  Though 
this  crab  is  the  largest,  it  is  not  as  powerful  as  the 
famous  palm-tree  crab,  of  the  islands  south  of  Japan, 
and  in  the  Indian  Archipelago.  The  crab  is  called  the 
Birgus,  and  is  a  relative  of  the  hermit  crab,  only  it  has 
no  shell,  the  plates  on  the  abdomen  being  extremely 
hard,  and  effectively  taking  the  place  of  the  shell  that 
is  worn  by  others  of  the  kind.  The  Birgus  is  not  a 
water  crab,  living  entirely  upon  the  land,  and  going 
down  to  the  sea  once  a  day,  it  is  said,  for  the  purpose 
of  moistening  its  gills.  They  are  generally  found  in 
the  near  proximity  of  palm  trees,  upon  the  fruit  of 
which  they  live,  and  their  burrows  are  generally  placed 
at  the  foot  of  the  trees.  To  give  you  an  idea  of  the 
number  of  cocoanuts  the  creatures  eat,  the  Malays 
come  about  twice  a  year  and  dig  up  their  holes  to  get 
the  cocoanut  husks  that  the  crabs  took  in   to  make 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  19 r 

their  nests.  Hundreds  of  pounds  are  thus  obtained 
and  made  into  mats,  beds,  and  many  other  articles  of 
household  use. 

STRENGTH    AND    TENACITY. 

The  most  remarkable  feature  about  these  crabs 
was  their  enormous  strength.  One  was  placed  in  an 
ordinary  tin  cracker-box,  where  there  was  no  oppor- 
tunity of  taking  hold ;  but  the  next  morning  the  box 
was  found  completely  punctured  with  holes,  actually 
bitten  through  by  the  sharp,  biting  claws  of  the  crab ; 
and  in  another  confined  in  the  same  way,  the  top  of 
the  box  was  fairly  twisted  off.  Having  so  much  mus- 
cular power,  natives  naturally  approach  them  with 
some  caution,  when  attempting  their  capture.  I  was 
informed  that  on  one  occasion  a  party  went  out  to  a 
place  somewhat  famous  for  them,  and  arriving  at 
night,  with  the  expectation  of  trying  for  the  crabs  the 
next  day.  But  during  the  night  the  party  was  awak- 
ened by  the  most  terrific  screams,  and,  rushing  into 
the  wood  near  at  hand  with  rush  lights,  they  found  one 
of  the  natives  swinging  partly  from  the  huge  leaf  of  a 
cocoanut  tree,  and  screaming  as  if  he  was  being  hung. 
For  some  moments  they  could  not  make  out  what  the 
trouble  was,  but  finally  was  sure  the  man  was  in  the 
grasp  of  an  enormous  Birgus.  The  native  had  at- 
tempted to  climb  a  palm  tree,  but  had  been  seized 
almost  immediately  by  a  crab  which  happened  to 
be  clinging  to  the  branch.  Naturally  the  crab  held  on, 
and  had  almost  pulled  the  hair  out  of  the  man's  head 
before  he  was  rescued. 

The  intelligence  shown  by  these  crabs  is  remark- 
able. They  climb  the  palms,  bite  off  a  nut  and  allow 
it  to  drop,  and  thus  break  it  open ;  and  if  they  find  a 


ig2  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

nut  on  the  ground,  they  have  been  known  to  take  it  to 
the  top  of  a  tree  and  hurl  it  to  the  ground.  Others, 
and  generally  the  large  ones,  have  been  observed  to 
beat  it  against  a  rock,  and  so  break  the  shell.  They 
invariably  commence  to  tear  away  the  husk  at  the  end 
upon  which  is  situated  the  two  holes.  When  this  is 
done,  with  the  great  claw,  they  hammer  the  holes  until 
an  opening  is  made,  and  then  the  body  is  twisted 
around,  and  one  of  the  small  hind  legs  that  will  just 
fit  is  introduced,  the  meat  taken  out  bit  by  bit,  and 
then  the  shell  is  broken. 

The  crab  is  certainly  a  lowly  creature,  but  it  is 
remarkably  intelligent  in  some  ways,  and  also  cunning. 
If  you  have  ever  tried  to  catch  a  wild  lobster,  you  are 
aware  how  many  wiles  they  have  to  effect  their  escape 
or  delude  their  pursuers. 

Some  years  ago  the  question  was  raised  in  Lon- 
don, whether  crabs  remained  in  the  same  locality  year 
after  year,  and  finally  it  was  resolved  to  test  the  ques- 
tion. So  about  a  thousand  crabs  were  caught  and 
marked  in  various  ways,  and  taken  a  distance  of  twenty 
miles,  and  put  overboard,  and  in  less  than  a  week 
hundreds  of  these  marked  crabs  were  caught  on  their 
own  grounds. 

PLANTAIN    OR    BANANA. 

Of  this  fruit  Humboldt  says:  I  doubt  whether 
there  be  any  other  plant  that  produces  so  great  a 
quantity  of  nutritive  substance  in  so  small  a  space. 
Eight  or  nine  months  after  the  sucker  is  planted,  it 
begins  to  develop  its  cluster.  The  fruit  may  be  gath- 
ered in  the  tenth  or  eleventh  month.  When  the  stock 
is  cut  there  is  always  found,  among  the  numerous 
shoots  that  have  taken  root,  a  sprout,  being  two-thirds 


TEA    PLANT    OF    CHINA — IN    FULL    BLOOM. 


/ 


OF   THE   PACIFIC   OCEAN  igj 

tlie  helg-ht  of  its  parent  plant,  and  bearing  fruit  three 
months  later.  Thus  a  plantation  of  bananas  perpetu- 
ates itself  without  requiring  any  care  on  the  part  of 
man,  further  than  to  cut  the  stalks  when  the  fruit  has 
ripened,  and  to  stir  the  earth  gently  once  or  twice  a 
year  about  the  roots,  A  piece  of  ground  of  one  hun- 
dred square  metres  of  surface  will  contain  from  thirty 
to  forty  plants.  During  the  course  of  the  year,  the 
same  piece  of  ground  (reckoning  the  weight  of  the 
cluster  at  from  fifteen  to  twenty  kilogrammes  only) 
will  yield  2,000  kilogrammes,  or  more  than  4,000 
pounds,  of  nutritive  substance.  What  a  difference  be- 
tween this  product  and  that  of  the  cereal  grasses  in 
most  parts  of  Europe  !  The  same  extent  of  land  plan- 
ted with  wheat  would  not  produce  above  thirty  pounds, 
and  not  more  than  ninety  pounds  of  potatoes.  Hence 
the  product  of  the  banana  is  to  that  of  wheat  as  133  to 
I,  and  to  that  of  potatoes  as  44  to  i.  The  banana 
•  forms  the  principal  food  of  these,  as  well  as  many  other 
tropical  countries,  and  the  apathy  and  indolence  of  the 
natives  in  the  tierras  calientes,  or  hot  regions,  has  been 
ascribed — and  probably  with  good  reason — to  the  fa- 
cility with  which  it  supplies  them  with  a  means  of 
subsistence. 

Again,  the  fruit  is  dried  and  pressed,  after  which 
it  can  be  kept  for  a  long  time,  forming  a  food  not  in- 
ferior to  the  dried  figs. of  commerce. 

BECHE-DE-MER    FISHING. 

In  regard  to  the  traffic  in  Beche-de-mer,  for  which 
there  is  such  a  demand  in  China  and  Japan,  I  have 
thought  best  to  quote  from  Mr.  H.  B.  Sterndale,  who 
some  years  ago  wrote  many  interesting  papers  on  the 
islands  of  the  Pacific: 

*13 


194  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

Beche-de-mer,  called  by  the  Chinese  Tripano-, 
and  by  the  Polynesian,  Rodi,  and  in  the  South  Sea  a^d 
Caroline  group,  Menika,  is  of  that  species  of  mol- 
lusc classed  as  the  Holothujddes.  It  has  the  appear- 
ance of  a  great  slug  or  leech,  and  like  most  other 
marine  animals  of  the  same  type,  lives  by  process  of 
suction  upon  microscopic  animalculses.  It  has  the 
form  of  an  elongated  sac  of  a  gristly  consistence,  tra- 
versed internally  by  strong  muscles.  It  grows  usually 
to  about  eio-hteen  inches  lone  and  somewhat  less  in 
circumference.  The  labor  of  collecting  and  drying 
the  fish  is  performed  partly  by  the  crews  of  the  ves- 
sels engaged  in  this  business,  who  are  commonly  Poly- 
nesian natives,  with  the  exception  of  the  mate  or 
trading  master  or  interpreter,  and  such  islanders  as 
they  bring  along  with  them,  if  it  be  a  desert  or  unin- 
habited place,  or  otherwise  the  aborigines  whom  they 
find  in  possession.  There  is  one  advantage  m  beche- 
de-mer  fishing  that  upon  the  great  desert  reefs  where 
it  most  abounds  the  fishers  never  need  be  idle.  In 
calm  weather  they  gather  the  red  kind  off  the  top 
of  the  reef  just  inside  the  foam  of  the  breakers. 
In  stormy  times  they  dive  for  the  black  kind  inside 
the  lagoons. 

METHOD    OF    FISHING. 

From  its  size  and  color,  it  is  plainly  visible  to  a 
depth  of  at  least  ten  fathoms,  even  when  the  water  is 
much  ruffled  by  the  winds — the  more  so  as  it  lives  on 
the  smooth  white  sandy  bottom.  The  material  re- 
quired for  the  prosecution  of  this  business  is  of  the 
most  limited  character,  merely  a  boat,  a  few  axes  to 
cut  building  material  and  fire-wood,  a  supply  of  long 
knives  for  all  hands,  and  in  some  cases  two  or  three 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  igs 

try-pots,  such  as  are  used  on  board  of  whale -ships,  with 
buckets  and  skiice-forks.  The  first  preliminary  ope- 
ration is  to  build  two  houses — one  for  the  curing-  of 
the  fish,  which  is  done  by  smoking,  as  bacon-  is  cured 
in  our  own  country ;  the  other^  for  the  purpose  of 
storing  it  after  being  sufficiently  cured. 

When  in  proper  condition  it  brings  readily  in 
China  or  Japan  five  to  six  hundred  dollars  per  ton, 
with  hardly  a  limit  to  supply  or  demand. 

CONTRACTS   WTTH    THE    NATIVES. 

The  terms  upon  which  the  laborers  are  engaged 
for  beche-de-mer  fishing  depends  upon  the  circum- 
stances of  the  case.  "Beach-combers,"  who  have  na- 
tive wives  and  families,  commonly  make  up  a  party 
of  their  wives'  relations  and  near  neio^hbors,  and  re- 
munerate  them  for  their  work  by  sharing  a  part  of 
the  proceeds.  Adventurers  who  sail  small  vessels, 
and  have  no  settled  home  on  the  islands  to  which  the 
laborers  belong,  hire  them  for  a  specified  time  at  a  fixed 
rate  of  wages,  under  a  written  agreement,  which  is 
witnessed  by  their  chief  or  king.  Although  in  the 
majority  of  cases  no  one  understands  the  document 
but  the  white  men  concerned  in  its  concoction,  yet 
the  most  ignorant  of  these  natives  are  pleased  to  see 
a  promise  written  down,  there  being  to  their  untutored 
minds  something  sacred  and  binding  connected  with 
the  operation.  Here  follows  a  verbatim  translation  of 
a  memorandum  of  this  kind  between  one  "Uroroa" 
(that  is  Longbeard,  a  white  man  known  to  the  na- 
tives by  that  name,  as  Polynesians  generally  invent  a 
name  from  some  physical  peculiarity  for  any  Euro- 
pean whom  they  have  dealings  with)  and  certain  peo- 
ple of  Nukinivano: 


1^6  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

"We,  men  and  women  of  Nukinivano,  whose 
marks  are  put  at  the  bottom  of  this  paper,  agree. to 
go  with  the  captain  Longbeard  to  the  island  of  Gan- 
net  Cay,  and  to  fish  for  beche-de-mer  for  six  moons, 
and  to  be  paid  each  man  or  woman  fourteen  fathoms 
of  cahco,  or  twenty-one  plugs  of  tobacco  per  moon, 
or  other  things  as  we  like,  such  as  knives  or  needles, 
at  a  value  as  we  have  before  agreed ;  and  at  the  end 
of  six  moons,  to  be  returned  to  our  home,  if  the  wind 
should  be  fair  for  us  to  come  back  at  that  time. 
The  chief,  whose  name  is  Dogfish,  shall  superintend 
the  work.  The  captain  Longbeard,  shall  tell  the 
chief  Dogfish,  what  the  people  are  to  do,  and  Dog- 
fish shall  tell  the  people.  The  captain  Longbeard, 
shall  not  beat  any  of  the  people.  The  people  shall 
not  fight  among  themselves,  but  if  there  be  any  quar- 
rel among  them,  they  shall  refer  it  to  the  captain 
Longbeard  and  the  chief  Dogfish.  If  any  one  of  the 
people  die,  that  which  is  due  him  or  her  shall  be  en- 
trusted to  the  chief  Dogfish,  to  be  given  to  his  or  her 
family.  The  captain  Longbeard  shall  supply  to  all 
the  people,  for  nothing,  lines  and  fish-hooks,  that  they 
may  catch  themselves  food.  All  food  and  fresh  water 
shall  be  taken  charge  of  and  fairly  divided  by  the  chief 
Dogfish.  Twenty-eight  days  shall  count  for  each 
moon ;  out  of  each  moon,  shall  be  four  days'  rest, 
that  is  to  say,  the  people  shall  work  six  days,  and  on 
the  seventh  day  they  shall  do  no  work.  They  shall 
not  lie  to  the  chief  Dogfish,  or  be  lazy,  sulky  or  dis- 
satisfied.    There  is  no  more  to  say." 

Here  follow  the  names  of  the  people,  with  their 
marks.  The  contract  they  will  keep  to  the  letter,  not 
only  performing  the  duties  imposed  upon  them,  but 
adding  deeds  of  bravery,  kindness,  and  an  obedience  to 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  T97 

the   orders   of  their  employers,  that  might  be  copied 
with  great  benefit  in  more  civiHzed  lands. 


COCOANUT. 

One  of  the  great  sustaining  products  of  nearly  all  the 
groups  of  the  Pacific  is  the  fruit  of  thecocoanut  tree  [cocus 
nuciferd),  a  species  of  the  palm.  The  cocoanut  is  so 
well  known  that  but  a  passing  allusion  seems  all  that 
is  necessary.  Yet  its  manifold  uses,  with  that  of  the 
tree  on  which  it  grows,  if  described  at  any  length, 
would  fill  a  volume.  In  these  latitudes  it  has  a  very 
luxuriant  growth,  and  gives  to  the  lazy  natives  a  never 
ending  supply,  and  at  all  times  of  the  year  something 
to  eat,  drink  and  wear,  with  abundant  material  for 
clothing  and  shelter.  It  may  be  found  growing  in  the 
valleys,  on  the  hill  and  mountain  sides  and  tops,  and 
on  reefs  and  sandy  shores,  with  its  roots  laved  by  the 
waters  of  the  sea.  It  grows  to  a  height  of  sixty  or  one 
hundred  feet,  from  one  foot  to  two  feet  in  diameter, 
bearing  truit  seven  years  after  it  is  planted,  and  lives 
about  eighty  years.  Each  tree  furnishes  a  hundred  or 
more  nuts  a  year,  while  a  wise  provision  of  nature  so 
arranges  it  that  the  natives  may  find  the  nut  in  all  ol 
its  many  stages  of  progress  before  ripening,  and  all  on 
the  same  tree.  The  nut,  when  fully  ripe  and  ready  to 
fall,  is  covered  with  a  thick  fibre,  that  prevents  it  from 
breakinof  or  burstincr  when  it  strikes  the  Lfround. 
From  the  upper  end  grows  a  flag  or  tuft  that  guides  it 
in  its  descent,  and  causes  it  to  rest  with  its  proper  end 
down,  ready  to  take  root  and  reproduce  its  species. 
Again,  this  fibrous  covering  is  impervious  to  water, 
and  should  the  nut  fall  in  or  be  carried  by  the  waves 
or  surf  out  to  sea,  it  drifts  and  floats  with  the  currents, 


jpS  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

winds  or  tides,  until  cast  upon  some  distant  island,  reef 
or  beach,  to  take  root  and  grow,  very  often  furnishing 
subsistence  and  shelter  to  unfortunate  castaways  upon 
otherwise  barren  islands. 


TRADE    IN,    AND    VALUE    OF,    THE    NUT. 

An  immense  trade  has  been  carried  on  for  years 
with  China,  Japan  and  Europe,  in  the  preparation, 
shipment  and  manufacture  of  cocoanut  oil.  For  this 
purpose  the  nuts  are  gathered,  the  covering  taken  off, 
when  they  are  piled  in  great  heaps  on  rude  platforms 
about  a  foot  above  the  ground.  This  is  to  prevent  the 
absorption  of  moisture  from  the  earth,  and  consequent 
germination.  The  nuts  are  allowed  to  remain  in  this 
condition  for  several  months,  with  frequent  turnings 
and  handling.  After  drying  sufficiently  (ascertained 
by  average  samples  taken  from  the  heaps),  they  are 
broken  open,  and  the  "copra,"  or  dried  cocoanut  ker- 
nel, is  ready  for  shipment.  In  Europe  it  is  consumed 
in  great  quantities,  the  copra  being  pressed  by  ma- 
chinery much  like  that  used  in  extracting  oil  from  flax- 
seed, the  residuum  being  in  the  form  of  flaxseed  cake, 
and  sold  all  through  Europe  as  a  valuable  food  for  cattle. 
For  this  latter  reason,  it  has  been  found  more  profita- 
ble to  ship  in  the  form  described,  in  preference  to  ex- 
tracting the  oil  at  the  islands. 

It  is  not  an  over-estimate  to  suppose  that  in  a  co- 
coanut plantation  the  trees  will  number  sixty-four  to 
the  acre,  within  a  fraction  of  twenty  feet  apart,  and 
that  each  tree  will  produce  one  hundred  nuts  per  an- 
num. These  will  produce  copra  equal  to  five 
hundred  pounds  per  thousand,  and  from  this,  again, 
twenty-five  gallons  of  cocoanut   oil   can  be  pressed. 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  igg 

worth  about  sixty  cents  per  gallon.  At  this  rate,  a 
cocoanut  plantation  would  produce,  of  oil  alone,  very 
near  $ioo  per  acre  per  annum. 

Some  idea  may  be  formed  of  the  varied  uses  to 
which  the  cocoanut  tree  and  fruit  are  put,  when  it  is 
known  that  as  many  as  thirty'  articles  manufactured 
from  them  may  be  found  in  one  ordinary  English 
home.  V/here  fabrics  are  not  altogfether  made  from 
the  fibre,  it  yet  enters  in  with  other  material.  The  oil 
is  used  in  many  ways,  forming  one  of  the  principal  in- 
gredients in  fine  soaps  and  other  similar  manufactures. 
The  fruit,  while  by  itself  considered  by  many  a  great 
delicacy,  in  combination  forms  an  important  ingredient 
in  our  pastries  and  candies. 

The  tree,  when  tapped,  furnishes  a  pleasant, 
healthful  drink,  known  as  cocoanut  toddy.  Modern 
processes,  though,  have  made  this  fluid  into  a  rum, 
called  arrack,  and  said  to  be  very  satisfactory  to  old 
drinkers  in  the  way  of  strength  and  brain-entangling 
qualities. 

CORAL    (cORALLUM). 

Up  to  1 75 1,  the  theory  that  coral  was  a  vegetable 
growth  (disputed  by  Feranto  Imperato,  the  Neapolitan 
naturalist,  as  early  as  1599)  had  been  generally  ac- 
cepted. Even  its  scientific  name,  as  applied  to-day 
(zoophyte),  given  by  Linnaeus,  indicates  the  struggle 
that  sometimes  takes  place  to  throw  light  even  into 
scientific  minds.  The  name  would  place  it  in  both  the 
animal  and  vegetable  kinofdom,  forming  a  rather  curi- 
ous  combination  for  the  industrious  little  insect  to  work 
under.  In  truth,  coral  is  the  stony  frame  which  be- 
longs to  these  animals,  as  a  skeleton  belongs  to  an 
individual  of  the  hiorher  orders  of  the  animal  kinodom. 


200  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

The  coral  which  has  obtained  world-wide  celeb- 
rity, is  that  used  as  jewelry,  known  as  coralhmirubntm, 
found  in  the  Mediterranean,  the  Barbary  coast,  the 
coast  of  Italy,  and  in  some  parts  of  Europe  and  America. 

In  general,  the  coral  of  the  Pacific  cannot  be  con- 
sidered as  valuable  for  jewelry,  the  order  being  of  the 
coarser  kind — curious  and  beautiful  in  its  varied  color- 
ings and  forms,  but  of  no  great  intrinsic  value — if  we 
except  a  kind  found  along  the  shores  of  the  island  of 
Sumatra,  and  as  we  approach  the  Indian  Ocean. 

In  the  olden  time,  the  manner  of  fishinor  for  coral 
was  nearly  the  same  everywhere.  That  which  is  most 
commonly  practiced  in  the  Mediterranean  vSea  is  as  fol- 
lows :  Seven  or  eiofht  men  sfo  in  a  boat,  commanded 
by  the  proprietor ;  the  caster  throws  his  net  (if  we  may 
so  call  the  machine  which  he  uses  to  tear  up  the  coral 
Irom  the  bottom  of  the  sea),  and  the  rest  work  the 
boat  and  help  draw  in  the  net.  This  is  compbsed  of 
two  beams  of  wood  tied  crosswise,  with  leads  fixed  to 
them  to  sink  them ;  to  these  beams  is  fastened  a  quan- 
tity of  hemp,  twisted  loosely  round  and  intermingled 
with  some  loose  netting"-  In  this  condition  the  machine 
is  let  down  into  the  sea,  and  when  the  coral  is  pretty 
strongly  entwined  in  the  hemp  and  nets,  they  draw  it 
up  with  a  rope,  Avhich  they  unwind  according  to  the 
depth,  and  which  it  sometimes  requires  half-a-dozen 
boats  to  draw.  If  this  rope  happens  to  break,  the 
fishermen  run  the  hazard  of  being  lost.  Before  the 
fishers  g(j  to  sea,  they  agree  for  the;  price  of  the  coral, 
and  the  produce  of  the  fishery  is  divided,  at  the  end  of 
the  season,  into  thirteen  parts,  of  which  the  proprietor 
has  four,  the  caster  two,  and  the  other  six  men  one 
each ;  the  thirteenth  belongs  to  the  company  for  the 
payment  of  boat  hire,  etc. 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  201 


CHAPTER  XIV. 


ISL,A]KD    I»RO»rCTS    AN»    RESOUUCBS. 


Cedar,  and  pine,  and  fir,  and  branching  palm, 

A  sylvan  scene,  and  as  the  ranks  ascend 

Shade  above  shade,  a  woody  theatre 

Of  stateliest  view. 

Milton,  {Paradise  Lost). 

PAPER    (papyrus). 

IT  has  often  been  a  subject  of  wonder  with  those 
learned  and  ingenious  persons  who  have  written  con- 
cerning die  arts  of  the  ancient  world,  that  the  Greeks 
and  Ronians,  although  they  possessed  a  prodigious 
number  of  books,  and  approached  ver\-  near  to  print- 
ing in  the  stamping  words  and  letters  and  similar  de- 
vices, should  not  have  fallen  upon  the  art;  the  first 
rude  attempts  at  typography  being  sufficiently  obvious, 
though  much  time  and  contrivance  have  been  required 
to  bring  the  process  to  the  perfection  in  which  it  now 

prevails. 

We  owe  the  introduction  of  paper  into  Europe  to 
the  Arabians  or  Moors.  There  is  some  uncertainty  as 
to  the  precise  era  of  its  first  appearance,  and  we  are 
unable  to  trace  the  origin  of  the  precious  invention,  or 
even  to  imagine  by  what  steps  men  were  led  to  it.  W  e 
cannot    conceive    how   anyone    could    be    tempted  to 


202  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

pound  wet  rags  in  a  mortar,  to  stir  the  paste  into  a 
large  body  of  water,  to  receive  the  deposit  on  a  sieve, 
and  to  press  and  dry  it.  The  labof  of  beating  rags 
into  a  pulp  by  hand  would  be  as  hopeless  as  it  would 
be  tedious  and  severe.  .  It  is  true  that  paper  was  orig- 
inally made  of  cotton,  a  substance  less  obstinate  than 
linen  and  other  rags,  which  are  now  commonly  used.  At 
present  the  fresh  rags  are  torn  into  pieces  by  a  powerful 
mill ;  formerly  it  was  the  practice  to  suffer  them  to  rot,  to 
place  them  in  large  heaps  in  a  warm  and  damp  situa- 
tion, and  to  allow  them  to  heat  and  ferment,  and  to 
remain  undisturbed  until  mushrooms  began  to  grow  on 
them — so  that,  being  partially  decayed,  it  might  be  less 
difficult  to  triturate  them.  Nevertheless,  the  invention 
of  paper  is  a  mystery.  The  Chinese  possessed  the 
art  of  making  paper  and  of  printing,  but  we  know  not 
how  long-  thevhave  had  them,  nor  whether  the -Moham- 
medans  learned  the  former  from  them.  The  illiterate 
inhabitants  of  some  of  the  islands  of  the  South  Seas 
were  able  to  compose  a  species  of  paper,  which  they 
used  in  fine  weather  for  raiment,  of  the  bark  of  trees. 
The  basis  of  paper  being  the  vegetable  fibre,  it  has 
been  made  of  various  substances,  as  straw,  as  well  as 
rags. 

(Notes  from  an  old  History  of  Paper-making.) 

To  describe  the  methods  now  in  use  for  the  man- 
ufacture of  paper,  with  an  account  of  the  perfect  ma- 
chinery, taking  place  of  human  hands,  in  the  various 
manipulations  to  turn  out  the  beautiful  paper  now 
met  with  in  nearly  all  parts  of  the  world,  would  take 
up  a  volume.  On  the  other  hand,  with  all  our  per- 
fect manufacturing  appliances,  we  lack  the  natural 
vegetable  growths  of  just  those  piths,  pulps  and 
barks,,  that   nature   so  abundantly  scatters   broadcast 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  203 

throughout  the  islands  of  the  Pacific.  Paper  ex- 
hibited at  the  last  Exposition  in  Paris,  manufactured 
in  Japan,  it  is  said  from  the  bark  of  the  mulberry, 
being  in  truth  the  Broussonetia,  the  Paper  Mulberry 
of  Japan,  the  East  Indies  and  the  South  Sea  Islands, 
excited  general  admiration.  Paper  from  that  countiy 
that  I  have  inspected  very  lately  in  San  Francisco,  is 
far  superior  in  texture,  beauty  and  durability,  to  any 
of  the  brands  made  from  English  linen.  Samples 
from  the  Phillippine  Islands,  made  from  the  abaca,  and 
others  of  the  musa  (banana)  plants,  show  fully  as  fine 
and  strong  a  texture,  but  lacking  the  satiny  gloss  of 
surface,  like  watered  silk,  seen  in  the  samples  from 
Japan.  The  vegetable  growth  furnishing  the  textile 
fabrics  in  all  its  many  varieties.  Is  to  be  found  in  wild 
abundance  on  nearly  all  of  the  Pacific  islands.  The 
gathering  of  the  raw  material,  and  its  export  to  Eu- 
rope and  America  for  its  more  perfect  manufacture 
into  the  manifold  forms  of  paper,  would  naturally 
lead  to  a  vast  business  in  the  textile  fabrics  alone,  that 
would  result   in   many  profitable  industries. 

CINNAMON   (CINNAMOMUM    ZEYLANICUM). 

Cinnamon  is  of  the  same  species  as  the  laurel. 
The  tree  is  of  small  growth,  and  evergreen.  In 
the  island  of  Ceylon,  where  the  finest  qualities  are 
produced,  it  is  cultivated  in  a  large  way,  and  forms  no 
inconsiderable  portion  of  the  princely  revenues  received 
from  the  products  of  that  island.  It  is  claimed  by  many 
authorities  to  be  indigenous  to  the  soil  of  Ceylon.  In 
any  event,  the  product  is  far  superior  to  that  of  any  other 
part  of  the  world,  although  many  of  the  island  groups 
cultivate   and  produce  it   in   abundance,  but  of  much 


204  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

Inferior  quality.  The  gardens  where  the  best  cinna- 
mon is  grown  are  managed  on  the  coppice  system, 
the  tree  being  cut  down  almost  to  the  roots,  and  the 
young  shoots,  some  six  or  eight  only,  allowed  to  grow. 
At  the  age  of  two  years  the  shoots  have  reached  a 
height  of  about  six  feet,  with  a  diameter  from  one 
to  two  inches.  These  are  cut,  and  the  bark  peeled 
off,  being  afterwards  cleaned  and  scraped,  when  it  is 
rolled  and  dried,  tied  in  bundles,  and  is  then  ready  for 
the  market. 

The  ordinary  cinnamon  as  we  find  it  in  the  marts 
of  America,  is  cassia  bark,  a  species  of  the  cinnamo- 
mum,  grown  extensively  in  China,  Japan  and  all  the 
islands  of  the  Eastern  Archipelago.  It  is  sold  in  im- 
mense quantities,  particularly  after  it  has  been  ground, 
when   it  is   hard  to  distinguish  It  from  the  true  spice. 

INDIGO. 

Another  of  the  valuable  plants  having  indigenous 
growth  in  the  Island  groups  of  the  Pacific,  particularly 
in  Japan,  the  Philllpplnes  and  Java,  Is  Indigo.  De- 
rived from  the  maceration  In  water  of  the  leaves  and 
twigs  of  the  plant,  hidigofcra  tincloi'ia,  and  the  /;/- 
digofcra  Anil,  with  its  after  precipitation  from  the 
liquid  form  into  that  met  with  In  commerce,  it  may 
be  justly  termed  one  of  the  valuable  island  products. 
The  indigo  from  the  island  of  [ava,  the  result  of 
the  rude  metliods  of  manufacture  resorted  to  by  the 
natives,  is  the  finest  in  the  world,  the  plant  seeming 
to  thrive  best  when  of  island  growth.  Its  manifold 
uses  as  a  drug,  as  well  as  in  the  arts,  together  with 
the  rather  complicated  processes  necessary  for  its  ex- 
traction from  the  plant,  would  require  at  least  a  sepa- 


OF   THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  205 

rate  chapter.     As   a  product  of  the  island  world,  it  is 
of  considerable  importance. 


TEAK   WOOD. 

Among  the  many  valuable  trees,  growing  so 
profusely  on  the  Islands  of  the  Pacific,  may  be  cited 
Teak,  or  Indian  Oak,  the  product  of  the  Tcctona 
gi^aiidis,  a  large  forest  tree,  growing  in  the  dry  and 
elevated  districts  in  the  south  of  India,  the  Burman 
empire,  Ava,  Siam,  Sumatra,  Java,  Borneo,  New 
Guinea,  etc.  Teak  is  by  far  the  best  timber  in  the 
East;  it  works  easily,  and  though  porous,  is  strong 
and  durable.  It  is  easily  seasoned,  and  shrinks  very 
little.  It  is  of  an  oily  nature,  and  therefore  does  not 
injure  iron.  Mr.  Crawford  says  that  in  comparing 
teak  and  oak  together,  the  useful  qualities  of  the 
former  will  be  found  to  preponderate.  It  is  equally 
strong,  and  somewhat  more  buoyant.  Its  durability 
is  more  uniform  and  decided ;  and  to  insure  that 
durability,  it  demands  less  care  and  preparation,  for 
it  may  be  put  into  use  almost  green  from  the  forest, 
without  danger  of  dry  or  wet  rot.  It  is  fit  to  endure 
all  climates  and  all  alternations  of  climate.  The  teak 
of  Malabar,  produced  on  the  high  table  land  of  the 
south  of  India,  is  deemed  the  best  of  any.  It  is  the 
closest  in  its  fiber,  and  contains  the  largest  quantity  of 
oil,  being  at  once  the  heaviest  and  most  durable.  This 
species  of  teak  is  used  for  the  keel,  timbers,  and  such 
parts  of  the  ship  as  are  under  water ;  owing  to  its  great 
weight,  it  is  less  suitable  for  the  upper  works,  and  is 
not  at  all  fit  for  spars.  The  teak  of  Java  ranks  next 
to  that  of  Malabar,  and  is  especially  suitable  for 
planking.     That  of  Sumatra,    Borneo,    New   Guinea, 


2o6  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

etc.,  are  of  equal  value,  and  their  great  forests  teem 
with  such  an  abundance  as  to  be  able  to  supply 
the  ship-building-  material  for  the  navies  of  the  world. 
The  Rangoon  or  Burman  teak,  and  that  of  Siam  is 
not  so  close  grained  and  durable  as  the  others.  It  is, 
however,  more  buoyant,  and  therefore,  best  suited 
for  masts  and  spars.  Malabar  teak  is  extensively 
used  in  the  building-yards  of  Bombay.  Ships  built 
wholly  of  it  are  almost  indestructible  by  ordinary 
wear  and  tear,  and  instances  are  not  rare  of  their 
having  lasted  from  eighty  to  a  hundred  years;  although 
they  are  said  to  sail  indifferently,  but  this  is  probably 
owing  to  some  defect  in  their  construction,  and  not  to 
the  weight  of  the  timber.  Calcutta  ships  are  never 
wholly  built  of  teak  ;  the  timbers  and  frame-work  are 
always  of  native  wood,  and  the  planking  and  deck 
only  of  teak.  With  this  timber,  in  combination  with 
the  pine  of  Oregon  and  the  redwood  of  California, 
vessels  could  no  doubt  be  constructed  superior  to 
anything  being  built  in  our  ship-yards  at  the  present 
time, 

RICE. 

One  of  the  great  food  staples  of  India,  China, 
Japan,  and  the  westerly  islands  of  the  Pacific,  is  rice. 
It  is  among  the  most  valuable  of  cereal  grasses — the 
oryza  sativa  of  botanists.  It  forms  the  principal  part 
of  the  food  of  the  most  civilized  and  populous  Eastern 
nations,  being  more  extensively  consumed  for  that 
purpose  by  the  people  of  those  countries,  than  any 
other  species  of  grain.  It  is  too  well  known  to  require 
more  than  a  place  here  as  a  product.  The  quality  of 
the  grain  grown  is  not  equal  to  that  produced  on  the 
low,  marshy  grounds  in  the  Carolinas  of  America — it 
having  no  equal. 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  20J 

SILK    (sERICUM). 

.  The  art  of  rearing  silk-worms,  a  species  of  cater- 
pillar or  larvae  of  the  genus  phalcziia,  and  of  unravel- 
ing the  threads  spun  by  them  informing  their  cocoons, 
dates  away  back  in  the  dim  pages  of  Chinese  histor)-. 
Its  first  introduction  from  China  into  Rome  was  about 
the  time  of  Pompey  and  Julius  Caesar.  The  great  dis- 
tance of  China  from  Rome,  the  journeys  of  the  cara- 
vans overland  through. the  Persian  Empire,  caused  a 
high  price  to  be  placed  on  silk,  bringing  in  the  earlier 
periods  its  weight  in  gold.  The  art  of  rearing  the 
worms  gradually  extended  over  the  countries  of  Eu- 
rope, being  introduced  in  France  under  the  reign  of 
Louis  XI  in  1480,  and  into  England  at  about  the  same 
period.  The  manufacture  of  silk  was  begun  in  Lyons 
in  1520,  under  Francis  I.  The  art  gradually  extended 
itself  over  France,  and  in  such  esteem  were  its  promo- 
ters held,  that  silk  manufacturers  who  had  pursued  the 
trade  for  a  period  of  twelve  years  were  rewarded  with 
a  patent  of  nobilty  by  Henry  lY. 

Rearing  the  silk-worm,  with  the  cultivation  of  the 
mulberry  [iJioracece)  tree  in  its  many  varieties — the 
leaves  of  which  serve  as  food  for  the  worm-=— has  been 
reduced  to  a  fine  art  in  India,  China,  Japan,  the  Phil- 
lippines,  and  some  of  the  islands  of  the  Eastern  Archi- 
pelago, and  other  islands  of  the  South  Sea,  forming 
one  of  the  most  valuable  productions  of  those  places, 
and  forms  no  inconsiderable  portion  of  our  commerce 
with  the  localities  named. 

PINEAPPLE    (aNANASSA    SATIVa), 

This  delicious  fruit  is  native  to  most  of  the  tropi- 
cal islands  of  the  South   Sea,  and   like  that  grown   in 


2o8  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

the  hot-houses  of  England  and  America,  its  quaUty  as 
a  fruit  is  altogether  dependent  upon  the  care  exercised 
in  its  cultivation.  In  its  wild  state,  about  the  only  con- 
dition in  which  it  produces  a  reproductive  seed,  it  is 
hardly  ever  sought  after  as  a  food,  but  rather  for  the 
long,  fine  fiber  contained  in  the  leaves.  There  are  as 
many  as  fifty  varieties,  not  all  of  them  bearing  a  pala- 
table fruit,  even  when  cultivated.  That  thouofht  the 
most  of,  in  the  Phillippine  Islands — not  as  a  fruit,  but 
for  its  fiber-producing  qualities — grows  in  the  wild 
state,  and  is  known  to  botanists  as  the  Bromelia  piu- 
guin.  This  particular  plant  throws  out  leaves  from 
three  to  sometimes  eisfht  feet  long-  which  abound  in 
fiber  of  great  strength  and  durability  in  the  older 
plants,  while  in  the  leaves  of  the  younger  growth  a 
fiber  is  found  that  the  natives  work  into  all  the  delicate 
forms,  gossamer  and  cobweb  like,  and  in  such,  delicate 
and  beautiful  designs  as  not  only  to  always  astonish 
the  traveler,  but  to  invariably  bring,  when  in  the  form 
of  veils,  handkerchiefs,  etc.,  many  times  their  weight 
in  gold. 

MANILLA    HEMP. 

The  textile  fiber  of  the  abaca  palm,  of  the  family 
of  rmcsas,  to  which  the  banana  and  plantain  belong,  is 
found  native  in  a  great  many  of  the  island  groups  of 
the  South  Sea,  but  probably  is  better  known  and  grows 
in  greater  luxuriance  in  the  Phillippines,  where  the 
manifold  uses  the  fiber  is  put  to,  in  the  manufacture  of 
the  most  delicate  laces,  veils,  handkerchiefs,  to  the 
coarsest  cables  used  by  ships,  has  made  the  name  of 
the  hemp  world-wide.  The  thousands  of  tons  of  the 
raw  material  shipped  from  the  Phillippines  every  year, 
and  to  nearly  every  part  of  the  world,  bear  evidence 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  209 

as  to  its  value  and  the  continually  increasing  demand 
for  the  fiber.  The  luxuriance  of  plant  growth  through- 
out the  islands  of  the  Pacific,  may  yet  be  taxed  to  sup- 
ply the  growing  demands  of  the  world,  for  products 
lavished  by  nature  on  these  sunny  lands.  From  this 
same  and  kindred  plants,  a  great  quantity  of  paper  is 
made,  and  the  fiber  is  spun  and  woven  alike  by  the 
natives  into  a  superior  cloth  for  clothing,  or  into  a 
heavier  material  for  sails,  mats,  bagging,  etc. 

PEPPER  (piper). 

The  fruit  of  the  climbing  shrub  or  vine  {^piper 
nigruni)  Is  native  and  cultivated  In  many  of  the  tropical 
countries.  Although  a  spice,  apparently  used  In  small 
quantities,  yet  In  the  aggregate,  thousands  of  tons  of 
It  are  produced  and  exported  from  the  Pacific  islands 
each  year. 

Java.  Borneo,  Sumatra,  the  Philllpplnes  and  the 
Molluccas  furnish  the  little  pungent  berry  in  abun- 
dance. Where  not  native  In  the  grand  old  forests  of 
the  islands,  or  when  not  supported  by  trees,  the  plant 
is  cultivated  in  a  manner  very  similar  to  our  hop  fields. 
The  black  and  white  varieties  are  the  product  of  the 
same  plant,  the  latter  simply  being  put  through  a 
bleaching  process,  in  water  or  by  chemicals,  and  re- 
sults In  the  white  pepper  of  commerce.  Pepper  is 
not  at  all  a  product  of  the  South  American  pepper 
tree,  much  used  In  our  country  for  shade  and  orna- 
ment ;  the  berry  produced  being  similar  In  appearance 
to  that  of  the  pepper  plant,  together  with  the  name, 
the  erroneous  Impression  sometimes  prevails  that  the 
pungent  product  is  from  this  tree.     The  efTect  of  the 

pepper  tree  berry  on  the  system  is  somewhat  different 
*  14 


2IO  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

from"  that  of  the  true  pepper.  Red  pepper,  also  a 
great  island  product,  is  from  the  plant — genus  solana- 
cecB,  or  nightshade  family,  and  is  grown  in  all  parts  of 
the  world.  It  is  native  to  tropical  countries,  and  in  the 
islands  of  the  Pacific  grows  in  the  greatest  luxuriance. 
After  ripening  on  the  plant,  it  is  picked,  dried  and 
ground,  furnishing  the  Cayenne  pepper  of  commerce. 

GUTTA    PERCHA. 

Gutta  Percha  is  the  name  given  by  the  Malays  to 
the  tree  belonging  to  the  natural  order  sapotacecE,  and 
to  the  newer  genus  isonaiidra,  is  found  in  the  greatest 
abundance  in  the  forests  of  Borneo,  Sumatra,  Java, 
and,  in  fact,  throughout  nearly  all  of  the  island  groups 
where  the  forestry  is  abundant.  The  tree  ranges  from 
two  to  eight  feet  in  diameter,  and  reaches  a  height  of 
sixty  to  eighty  feet.  The  timber  is  of  great  value, 
and  is  used  by  the  Malays  in  many  of  their  manufac- 
tures. The  sap  from  the  tree,  after  being  reduced  to 
the  form  of  a  gum,  with  its  valuable  property  of  be- 
coming plastic  in  hot  water,  so  that  it  can  be  molded 
up  into  any  form,  retaining  the  shape  when  cooled, 
was  known  to  the  Malays  probably  for  ages.  This 
property,  from  which  so  many  useful  advantages  have 
been  derived,  seems  to  have  remained  unknown  to 
our  people  until  about  1842  and  '43,  when  specimens 
of  the  gum  were  forwarded  to  England,  and  some 
time  transpired  before  it  was  brought  into  practical 
use.  Gutta  percha  differs  very  materially  from  india 
rubber  (also  one  of  the  bounteous  products  of 
the  islands),  in  being  elastic  only  in  a  ver)^  slight 
degree.  The  plants  are  very  different.  The  india 
rubber,   although   growing   a   foot   or   so   in    diame- 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  211 

ter,  grows  like  a  vine,  and  is  often  found  twined 
around  or  clinQ-inof  to  the  trees  of  the  o-^eat  island 
forests.  Again,  there  is  the  important  difference  in 
the  two  gums,  that  rubber  requires  a  chemical  prep- 
aration with  some  of  the  earths,  or  to  be  mixed  with 
certain  proportions  of  metallic  oxides,  to  make  it 
harder  after  heating  and  molding,  before  it  will  retain 
the  shape  desired,  becoming  then  vulcanized  rubber. 

SCREW    PINE    (PANDANUS). 

This  tree,  much  valued  in  the  Pacific,  is  native  to 
most  of  the  islands,  where  it  grows  in  the  greatest 
abundance.  It  is  among  the  first  of  the  plants  to  ap- 
pear on  newly  formed  or  forming  islands,  and  with  its 
spreading  roots,  often  raised  above  the  ground  and 
supporting  the  main  trunk  on  their  stems,  it  acts  as 
a  dam  and  barrier  to  encroaching  waves,  and  per- 
forms an  important  part  in  collecting  and  retaining 
the  drift  and  debris,  that  assists  so  materially  in  the 
first  plant  growth  of  islands.  Its  leaves,  growing 
generally  from  the  ends  of  the  main  branches,  spread- 
ing from  the  trunk,  grow  similar  to  those  of  the  pine- 
apple, whence  its  name ;  but  unlike  the  latter,  it  is  a 
tree  growing  from  twelve  to  forty  feet  high.  The 
many  ways  that  the  bark,  timber  and  the  strong  fiber 
of  its  leaves  can  be  used,  makes  it  highly  prized  by  the 
natives. 

RESINOUS    GUM    TREES. 

The  great  forests  of  Borneo,  Sumatra,  Java,  Cele- 
bes, New  Guinea,  etc.,  teem  with  an  almost  endless  va- 
riety of  trees  that  furnish  the  Hquid  resins  so  valuable 
as  a  base   for  our  varnishes,  while  the  ground  itself 


212  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

supplies  many  forms  of  the  oxidized  fossil  kinds, 
such  as  copal,  amber  and  others.  From  the  Fiji 
Islands,  where  the  natives  use  a  liquid  resin  as  a 
coating  or  glaze  for  their  pottery,  to  the  more  ad- 
vanced usages  of  the  Japanese,  in  their  beautiful 
lacquer  ware,  also  the  results  of  resinous  products,  a 
vast  field  in  this  line  alone  is  spread  out,  offering 
ample  room  for  the  employment  of  the  capital,  en- 
terprise and  skill  of  thousands  of  our  unemployed 
people. 

GENERAL    REMARKS. 

In  glancing  with  me  in  this  general  way  at  some 
of  the  valuable  island  products,  the  intelligent  reader 
will  no  doubt  agree  with  me  in  the  assertion  that  it  is 
but  a  glance.  That  a  volume  could  be  written  on 
valuable  products  alone,  and  still  another  on  their 
manifold  uses,  and  aofain  another  on  the  mechanical 
appliances  necessary  for  their  more  perfect  manipula- 
tion in  manufactories. 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  213 


CHAPTER  XV. 


OCBAJSIC    ETHT«OOIlAI»HY. 


See  him  from  nature  rising  slow  to  Art ! 
To  copy  instinct  then  was  reason's  part : 
Thus  then  to  man  the  voice  of  nature  spake — 
Go,  from  the  creatures  thy  instructions  take  ; 
Learn  from  the  birds  what  food  the  thickets  yield, 
Learn  from  the  beasts  the  physics  of  the  field, 
Thy  arts  of  building  from  the  bee  receive ; 
Learn  of  the  mole  to  plough,  the  worm  to  weave, 
Learn  from  the  little  Nautilus  to  sail, 
Spread  the  thin  oar,  and  catch  the  driving  gale. 

Pope  {Essay  on  Man). 

OCEANIC    RACES. 

WE  shall  use  the  term  Oceanica  in  the  sense  in 
which  it  is  applied  by  many  writers  on  Eth- 
nography, as  describing  all  the  land  comprised 
between  the  coasts  of  Asia  and  America,  including  the 
East  Indian  Archipelago,  the  many  smaller  clusters  of 
the  Pacific,  and  the  continent  of  New  Holland. 

The  whole  subject  of  the  distinctions  in  race 
among  the  wild  inhabitants  who  have  setded  on  these 
coundess  islands — the  "nomads  of  the  sea,"  as  Profes- 
sor MuUer  calls  them — is  even  more  intricate  and  in- 
volved than  the  differences  among  the  nomads  of  the 
land.  The  languages  of  many  of  the  tribes  have  never 
even  been  compared,  and  some  of  them  are  scarcely 


214  ^-^^  ISLAND  WORLD 

known  at  all ;  so  that  all  conclusions  must  necessarily, 
as  yet,  be  very  doubtful,  and  liable  to  much  change 
hereafter. 

There  are  at  least  two  very  different  schools  on 
this  subject,  each  represented  by  high  authority.  One 
led  by  the  celebrated  William  von  Humboldt,  assigns 
but  two,  or  at  most  three,  races  of  men  to  this  immense 
range  of  inhabitable  land — namely,  the  Malay,  the  Po- 
lynesian, and  a  race  of  Oriental  negroes. 

The  other,  represented  by  a  scholar  of  great  abil- 
ity, Mr.  J.  Crawford,  divides  the  inhabitants  of  Ocean- 
ica  into  five  brown  races,  with  lank  hair,  distinguished 
by  varieties  of  language,  and  eight  races  of  Oriental 
negroes.  The  tendency,  however,  of  all  late  investi- 
gation, is  toward  the  unity  of  these  varieties,  and  mod- 
ern conclusions  approach  those  of  Humboldt  much 
more  than  those  of  Crawford. 

Oceanica  may  be  divided  into  five  great  divisions  : 
Malaisia,  or  the  East  Indian  Islands,  together  with  the 
peninsula  of  Mallacca,  inhabited  by  the  Malay  race. 
Of  these  islands,  the  most  prominent  are  Sumatra, 
Java,  Borneo,  Celebes,  Mollucca,  Sooloo,  and  the  Phil- 
lippines. 

Melanasia  are  the  islands  inhabited  by  a  dark  race 
with  woolly  or  frizzled  hair,  comprising  New 
Guinea,  Aroo,  Mysol  and  others,  together  with  New 
Britain,  New  Ireland,  the  Solomon  Isles,  and  New 
Hebrides. 

Australia,  or  New  Holland,  a  vast  island,  sparsely 
peopled  by  a  black  race  with  straight,  smooth  hair. 

Micronesia,  a  long  range  of  little  groups  of  islands 
and  strips  of  coral  rock  in  the  North  Pacific,  east  of  the 
Phillippines,  including  the  Pelew,  Caroline,  Ladrone, 
Bonabe,  and   numerous   other  islands,  from   132  deg. 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  215 

east  longitude  to  178  deg.  west,  and  from  21  deg.  north 
latitude  to  5  deg.  south. 

Polynesia,  or  the  islands  in  the  East  Pacific,  occu- 
pied by  a  race  kindred  to  the  Malay,  of  which  the  best 
known  are  the  Navigators,  the  Friendly,  Society  and 
Sandwich  Islands,  together  with  New  Zealand. 

The  great  natural  peculiarities  of  this  quarter  of 
the  globe,  which  have  determined  the  divisions  of  race 
and  family,  have  been  its  insular  character,  the  perio- 
dicity of  its  winds,  and  the  malarious  climate  of  some 
of  the  islands ;  while  the  existence  of  a  people  on  its 
western  border,  with  a  highly  flexible  and  euphonious 
language,  and  gifted  with  much  enterprise  (the  Malay 
race),  has  affected  the  ruling  stock  through  all  this 
wide  region.  These  nomads  of  the  sea,  whenever 
desiring  adventure  or  seeking  commerce  or  plunder,  or 
driven  forth  by  defeat  or  hunger,  had  only  to  put 
themselves  and  wives,  with  their  few  utensils,  into  their 
light  canoes,  and  trust  themselves  to  the  prevailing 
trade  winds,  and  they  were  certain  finally  to  land  on 
some  new  island,  where  they  could  either  intermingle 
with  the  old  inhabitants  or  form  a  new  community.  It 
is  thus  that  the  almost  countless  islands,  from  the  Phil- 
lippines  to  Easter  Island,  through  eight  thousand  miles 
of  ocean,  were  peopled  by  a  similar  race. 

There  were  certain  of  the  islands  which  only  ad- 
mitted of  the  habitation  of  the  black  tribes,  owing  to 
the  highly  malarious  character  of  the  climate,  and  upon 
them  especially  these  tribes  are  found. 

CLIMATE. 

The  climate  has  probably  protected  them  against 
the  assaults  of  the  more  organized  nations.     Whether 


2j6  the  island  world 

they  were  the  original  settlers  is  impossible  to  deter- 
mine. Their  usual  position,  on  the  mountains  in  the 
interior  of  an  island,  would  indicate  an  earlier  habita- 
tion. Possibly,  as  some  ethnologists  have  supposed, 
their  appearance  here  may  date  back  to  an  immense 
antiquity — before  all  the  islands  were  separated  one 
from  another  or  from  the  Asiatic  continent;"''  while 
their  color  and  power  of  resisting  malarious  influences 
may  be  due  to  the  gradual  accumulation  and  trans- 
mission of  advantageous  changes,  adapting  them  to 
their  circumstances  through  vastly  extended  periods 
of  time. 

Judging  from  the  gradual  change  in  language  and 
customs,  as  well  as  from  other  indications,  the  great 
movement  of  the  Oceanican  people  must  have  been 
from  the  west  to  the  east — against  the  prevailing  trade 
wind ;  and  no  investigations  show  that  even  now,  at 
peculiar  seasons  of  the  year,  there  are  regular  winds 
blowine  from  the  west  which  drift  the  natives  hundreds 
and  thousands  of  miles. 

One  great  link  has  perhaps  been  discovered  by 
Professor  Muller  and  others,  showing  the  connection 
between  the  nomads  of  the  sea  and  the  nomads  of  the 
land,  in  their  investigations  into  the  Tai  and  Malay 
languages.         *         *         '^'  These  generic  expo- 

nents or  numerical  affixes  are  entirely  peculiar  to  those 
languages.  Many  other  evidences  are  adduced  of  the 
relation  between  the  languages  of  the  islands  and  the 
Asiatic  continent ;  so  that,  if  this  vast  connection  be 
fairly  established,  the  language  of  a  vast  portion  of 
Oceanica  may  be  included  in  the  great  Turanian  family. 

*Both  Dana  and  Hale  notice  evidence  of  a  gradual  subsidence  of 
the  land,  even  in  the  historic  period;  the  ruins  of  temples  on  Bonab^, 
for  instance,  being  found  partly  submerged  by  the  sea. 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  217 

THE    MALAYS. 

Besides  the  large  islands,  which  have  already  been 
spoken  of  as  occupied  by  this  family,  they  hold  also 
the  small  islands  south  of  the  Phillippines,  up  to  the 
west  coast  of  New  Guinea,  and  those  on  the  east 
point  of  Java  and  Sumatra,  up  to  the  Straits  of  Mal- 
lacca.  Their  language,  which  is  found  purest  on  the 
Phillippines,  is  one  of  the  most  widely  extended  of 
Asia,  traces  of  it  being  discovered  from  Madagascar 
to  Easter  Island,  and  from  Formosa  to  New  Zealand, 
over  70  deg.  of  latitude  and  200  deg.  of  longitude. 
This  race  has  for  ages  possessed  the  knowledge  of 
letters,  worked  metals  and  domesticated  useful  ani- 
mals, and  has  led  the  commerce  and  enterprise  of 
the  Pacific  Ocean.  The  flexibility  of  its  tongue  has 
made  it  everywhere  the  medium  of  communication, 
and  even  in  Madagascar,  at  3,000  miles  distance, 
Malay  words  form  one-fifty-seventh  of  the  vocabulary 
of  the  islanders.  The  Malay  conquest  and  settle- 
ments after  the  remote  emiorration  from  the  continent, 
are  supposed  by  Crawford  to  have  begun  from  the 
center  of  Sumatra,  and  to  have  extended  from  the 
Malay  peninsula  and  the  coasts  of  Borneo.  Their 
influence  was  only  excluded  from  two  quarters  by 
different  causes — from  the  Asiatic  shores,  by  the  su- 
perior Chinese  civilization  already  prevailing  there, 
and  from  Australia,  by  the  great  degradation  of  its 
inhabitants.  Physical  objects  alone  prevented  their 
reaching  the  coasts  of  America.  The  Malay  language 
shows  that  it  has  been  acted  upon  by  both  Indian  and 
Chinese  influences. 

The  Malay  bodily  type   is  described   by  Prichard 
as  Indo-Chinese.     The  nose  is  short,  but  not  flat,  the 


2i8  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

mouth  large  and  lips  thin,  cheek  bones  high,  and  face 
broadest  at  that  point,  the  complexion  yellowish. 
The  form  is  squat,  and  height  only  about  five  feet 
three  or  four  inches. 


THE    POLYNESIANS. 

The  second  great  race,  of  similar  physical  struc- 
ture and  language  with  the  Malays,  and  undoubtedly 
of  the  same  origin,  are  the  Polynesians.  The  islands 
especially  occupied  by  this  people  are  those  lying  be- 
tween New  Zealand  and  Easter  Isle,  north,  up  to  the 
Sandwich  Islands,  and  west,  as  far  as  the  Fiji  and  New 
Hebrides.  Mixtures  of  this  with  other  races  are 
found  all  over  the  islands  of  the  Pacific.  They  were 
for  centuries  a  half  civilized  people,  and  have  pos- 
sessed a  well  established  government,  together  with 
religious  doctrines  and  usages,  and  a  sacred  language 
unintelligible  to  the  people,  as  well  as  a  system  of 
ecclesiastical  authority.  They  exhibited  skill  in  vari- 
ous arts,  and  were  bold  and  experienced  sailors. 
They  had  no  writing,  but  possessed  many  legends 
and  traditional  poetry.  Yet  they  and  their  kindred, 
the  Malay  race,  have  the  infamy  of  being  the  prin- 
cipal and  almost  the  only  race  indulging  habitually  in 
canibalism. 

Physically,  the  Polynesians  are  placed  among  the 
class  of  light-brown  complexion  verging  to  white. 
They  are  described  by  Hale  as  above  the  middle 
height,  well  formed,  with  thick,  strong,  black  hair, 
slightly  curled,  and  scanty  beard;  the  head  short 
and  broad,  and  higher  than  most  races  in  their  stage 
of  development,  with  a  remarkably  flat  posterior 
head,  like  that  of  the  American   Indians.     In   disposi- 


OF   THE  PACIFIC   OCEAN  21Q 

tion  they  are  represented  as  good-humored  and  fickle, 
and  very  ready  to  adopt  new  usages. 

The  Polynesian  language,  Hale  supposes  to  spread 
especially  from  Bouru,  the  easternmost  of  the  Malay 
islands. 

The  whole  number  of  the  Polynesians  proper  is 
less  than  500,000. 

From  the  evidence  of  language,  Mr.  Crawford 
concluded  that  there  was,  in  the  ante-historic  times, 
a  great  Polynesian  nation,  whose  speech  lies  at  the 
basis  of  all  the  various  Malay  and  Polynesian  lan- 
guages at  the  present  day.  This  people — judging 
from  the  records  preserved  in  the  words  they  have 
transmitted — had  made  some  progress  in  agriculture, 
and  understood  the  use  of  gold  and  iron ;  were 
clothed  with  a  fabric  made  of  the  fibrous  bark  of 
plants,  which  they  wove  in  the  loom,  while  knowing 
nothing  of  the  manufacture  of  cotton,  which  they  ac- 
quired afterward  from  India.  They  had  tamed  the 
cow  and  buffalo,  and  possessed  and  fed  upon  the  hog, 
the  domestic  fowl  and  the  duck. 

The  massive  ruins  and  remains  of  pyramidal 
structures  and  terraced  buildings  on  the  Pacific  Islands, 
are  probably  from  this  primeval  race. 

THE    MICRONESIANS. 

Micronesia,  as  was  before  stated,  embraces  a  long 
range  of  small  islands  in  the  North  Pacific,  east  of 
the  Phillippines,  including  the  Pelew,  Ladrone,  Bo- 
nabe  and  others,  from  132  deg.  east  longitude  to  178 
deg.  west,  and  from  2 1  deg.  north  latitude  to  5  deg. 
south. 

Owing  to   the   peculiar  position  of  these  islands. 


220  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

they  are  exposed  to  winds  blowing  from  various 
quarters,  so  that  the  emigration  which  settled  them 
would  naturally  be  from  many  different  sources.  In 
physical  type,  the  people  are  of  reddish  brown  com- 
plexion, rough  skin,  and  high,  bold  features;  the 
head  is  high  compared  with  its  breadth,  hair  black 
and  curled.  They  show  skill  in  various  arts,  and,  in 
Hale's  view,  give  indications  of  having  descended 
from  a  higher  to  a  lower  civilization.  In  advance  of 
the  Polynesians,  they  possess  the  art  of  varnishing  and 
weaving ;  they  also  understand  steering  by  the  stars. 
The  practice  of  tattooing  is  observed,  not  only  for 
decency  or  ornament,  as  with  other  tribes,  but  for 
the  purpose  of  distinguishing  clans  and  memorizing 
events.  Their  government  is  more  intricate  than  that 
of  the  Polynesians,  and  their  religion  is  different,  re- 
sembling more  that  of  Eastern  Asia,  and  recognizing 
tlie  worship  of  parents.  Taboo  is  not  in  use.  On 
some  of  the  islands,  as  Bonabe  and  others,  architec- 
tural ruins  of  a  remarkable  appearance  are-  found. 
The  language  of  Tarawa  contains  a  mixture  of  Poly- 
nesian and  Melanesian,  or  Papuan,  but  on  the  whole, 
it  is  uncertain  if  there  is  a  distinct  Micronesian  race. 

THE    MELANESIANS. 

The  black  tribes  of  Oceanica  present  a  difficult 
subject  to  the  student  of  races.  Not  enough  is  known 
of  their  languages,  to  affirm  either  as  to  their  origin 
or  their  division. 

They  are  found  first  in  the  west,  on  the  Andaman 
Islands,  between  lo  deg.  and  14  deg.  north  latitude. 
These  Melanesians,  or  Negrillos,  are  considered  by 
Prof  Owen  as  the  lowest  of  mankind.     They  have  no 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  221 

tradition  or  history ;  no  inventions,  except  door-mats, 
and  bows  and  arrows ;  no  agriculture,  and  their  hab- 
itations are  the  rudest  and  most  primitive.  Both 
sexes  go  naked  without  shame,  and  families  and 
wives  are  in  common.  According  to  the  same  au- 
thority, the  Andamans  have  no  notion  of  Deity,  or 
spiritual  beings,  or  a  future  state ;  an  assertion  which 
does  not  seem  easily  proved.  They  are  not  cannibals, 
but  show  a  great  hostility  to  strangers.  Neither  skull 
nor  teeth  present  the  characteristics  of  the  lowest 
African  tribes.  Prog-nathism  is  no  more  common 
than  in  the  most  of  the  South  Asiatic  peoples.  The 
hair  resembles  that  of  the  Papuans  and  Australians,  as 
well  as  of  the  lower  African  negroes.  They  approach 
the  orangs  and  chimpanzees  in  their  diminutive 
stature,  but  show  the  well  balanced  human  proportion 
of  trunk  and  limbs.  Latham  states  that  there  is  a 
very  evident  link  of  connection  between  the  language 
of  the  Andamans  and  the  monosyllabic  Burmese. 

The  black  tribes  next  appear  in  the  Nicobar 
Islands,  then  upon  the  mountains  of  Mallacca,  where 
they  are  called  Semangs,  and  in  the  Phillipines,  where, 
under  the  name  of  Negritos,'''  they  number  about  25,- 
000. 

On  Luzon  there  are  3,000  of  them  under  the 
Spanish  rule.     On  Ceram  a  tribe  of  them  is  found  so 


*The  Negritos  are  said  by  Bowring  to  possess  a  remarkable 
facility  in  the  use  of  their  toes,  and  their  feet  are  marked  by  a  greater 
separation  of  the  toes  than  usual.  They  can  descend  the  rigging  of  a 
ship  head  downward,  clinging  with  their  feet.  They  are  slight  in  form, 
agile,  small  and  thin,  with  handsome  face,  and  dark  copper  complexion. 
The  hair  is  black  and  curly,  head  small  and  round,  forehead  narrow, 
eyes  large  and  penetrating,  and  veiled  by  very  long  eyelids,  the  nose  of 
medium  size,  slightly  depressed,  mouth  and  lips  medium,  teeth  long. — 
{Sir  J.  Bowring'' 5  Visit  to  Phil.  Islands.) 


222  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

low  as  to  live  in  trees  instead  of  huts.  A  wild  race 
of  blacks  is  supposed  also  to  occupy  the  interior  of 
Borneo,  though  there  is  not  full  evidence  of  it. 

GENERAL   CHARACTERISTICS. 

Crawford  supposes  that  there  is  but  one  race  of 
Oriental  negroes,  as  these  blacks  are  called,  north  of 
the  equator,  and  two  races  south  in  the  Malay  Archi- 
pelago, and  in  New  Guinea.  Of  these  latter,  one  has 
the  neofro  features,  but  not  in  the  extreme.  The  hair 
is  frizzled,  long  and  bushy,  skin  of  lighter  color,  fore- 
head higher,  and  the  posterior  head  not  "cut  off,"  as 
It  were.  The  nose  projects,  the  upper  lip  is  larger, 
and  prominent,  and  the  lower  very  projecting.  The 
other  race  he  distinguishes  by  its  lank  hair. 

The  more  general  conclusion  now  is,  that  there  is 
but  one  race  of  Oriental  negroes,  even  including  the 
black  Australians,  and  the  inhabitants  of  Van  Die- 
man's  Land.  Latham  doubts  even  the  existence  of 
the  neofro  tribes  in  the  smaller  islands  of  Melanesia. 

The  Australian  languages  are  more  like  the  Malay 
and  Polynesian  than  they  are  like  anything  else.  There 
are  often,  he  allows,  greater  approaches  of  the  black  to 
the  brown  tribes  in  language,  than  the  received  physical 
divisions  would  justify. 

The  black  tribes  are  not  considered  by  travelers 
as  inferior  in  capacity  to  the  brown,  but  they  are  pe- 
culiarly wild  and  impatient  of  control,  and  thus  not 
easily  organized,  so  that  they  readily  fall  under  the 
power  of  the  Malays.  It  is  not  found  to  be  true  that 
they  disappear  before  the  advance  of  civilization  in  the 
Eastern  Ocean.  On  the  contrary,  in  some  islands, 
even  the  most  civilized,  they  have  increased ;   but  the 


OF   THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  223 

great  cause  of  their  decrease  is  to  be  found  in  the  bitter 
hostility  and  superior  organization  of  the  Malays  and 
Polynesians. 

Without  the  knowledge  of  their  languages,  these 
physical  divisions  are  not  sufficient  to  determine  the 
origin  or  the  divisions  of  the  race.  The  probability  is 
that  these  black  tribes  are  offshoots  from  the  ancient 
black  races  of  India  and  Asia,  scattered  widely,  by  the 
conquest  of  others,  or  their  own  pursuit  of  plunder, 
over  the  Pacific  islands.  A  black  tribe  is  known  to 
exist  on  the  mountains  between  Cochin  China  and 
Cambodia,  called  the  Moys,  which  may  be  a  portion  of 
their  ancestral  people.  On  some  of  the  islands  which 
the  black  nations  settled,  they  were  extirpated,  or  were 
driven  to  the  mountains,  where  they  are  still  found ;  on 
others  the  malarious  climate  defended  them  from  for- 
eign encroachment,  and  on  others  they  became  min- 
gled with  a  different  race.  Many  of  the  Melanesian 
tribes  present  great  mixtures  of  blood. 

The  Papuans,  who  are  distinguished  by  spirally 
twisted  hair,  frizzled  and  dressed  by  them  in  a  huge 
mass  above  the  head,  are  a  cross  of  the  dark  races 
with  the  Malays.  The  eastern  islands,  as  Tanna  and 
others,  show  Polynesian  blood.  Timor  contains  with- 
in its  limits  every  variety  of  color  and  hair.  The  Fijis* 
are  probably  a  mixture  of  Papuans  and  Polynesians. 
In  their  mould,  they  are  said  by  Mr.  Williams  to  be 
decidedly  European,  with  very  large  and  powerful 
frames.  The  face  is  oval,  profile  vertical,  nose  well 
shaped,   but  the  hair   frizzled  and  bushy.     The  com- 

*The  Fiji  Islands,  Mr.  Williams  supposes  to  be  the  point  where 
the  Asiatic  and  African  elements,  among  the  Polynesians,  unite. 

H.  C.  von  der  Gabelentz  finds  evidence  of  the  mixture  of 
Polynesian  and  Melanesian  in  the  Fiji  language. 


224  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

plexion  Is  between  the  black  and  brown — sometimes 
almost  purple.  The  nearest  approach  to  the  negro  is 
on  the  island  of  Kandavu.  The  Fijis  resemble  the 
blacks  in  their  use  of  the  bow  and  the  manufacture  ot 
their  pottery,  and  the  Polynesians,  in  the  making  ot 
their  paper  cloth,  the  preparation  of  kava,  and  the 
practice  of  tattooing.  The  language  contains  one-fifth 
of  Polynesian  words,  and  four-fifths  unlike  any  other 
tongue.  The  aborigines  of  Van  Dieman's  Land  are 
classed  by  some  among  the  Papuans.  The  Melan- 
esians  are  notoriously  sullen  in  disposition  and  deficient 
in  enterprise,  and  manifest  a  different  temperament 
from  either  that  of  the  Polynesians  or  Africans. 

The  prominent  distinction  between  the  languages 
of  the  negro  and  brown  races,  Crawford  states  to  be 
that  the  first  contain  more  consonants  in  proportion  to 
vowels,  and  more  harsh  combinations  of  consonants, 
than  the  latter. 

Gabelentz  has  made  a  careful  investigation  of  the 
dialects  of  many  of  the  Melanesian  tribes.  Those,  for 
instance,  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  Fiji  Islands,  of  Anna- 
torn,  Eromengo,  Tanna,  Mallikolo,  Mare,  Lifu,  Bala- 
dea,  Bauro  and  Guadalcanar. 

His  deliberate  and  carefully  formed  conclusion  is, 
that  all  the  Melanesian  languages,  though  disintegra- 
ted and  apparently  separated  from  one  another,  owing 
to  the  barbarism  and  isolation  of  each  of  the  tribes,  do 
yet  belong  to  one  stock.  He  is  also  of  the  opinion 
that,  botli  in  roots  and  in  many  grammatical  peculiari- 
ties, there  are  numerous  remarkable  resemblances 
between  the  Polynesian  and  Melanesian ;  so  that  the 
hypothesis  of  their  common  origin  is  a  highly  probable 
one. 

If  this  be  hereafter  more  fully  demonstrated,   the 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  22j 

whole  vast  population  of  brown  and  black  peoples — 
the  Malays,  Polynesians  and  Melanesians — may  be 
referred  to  one  source,  and  in  all  probability  be  joined 
with  the  Turanian  races  of  Asia. 


THE    AUSTRALIANS. 

The  inhabitants  of  Australia  and  Van  Dieman's 
Land,  belonging  to  the  black  races,  are  pronounced  to 
be  almost  the  lowest  of  mankind.  They  have  no  gov- 
ernment, and  their  religion  consists  only  of  the  most 
childish  or  debased  superstitions.  Their  physical  type 
seems  a  cross  of  the  Malay  and  the  African,  the  most 
distinguishing  feature  being  the  long,  fine,  wavy  hair, 
like  the  hair  of  a  European.  The  evidence  with 
reference  to  their  physique  is  quite  conflicting.  Many 
of  them  are  said  to  show  a  deficiency  of  bone  in  their 
structure,  and  some  tribes  are  represented  as  so 
degenerated  physically  as  to  resemble  cretins,  and  to 
be  In  process  of  extinction.  On  the  other  hand,  Pick- 
ering states  that  one  of  the  finest  types  of  muscular 
frame,  and  the  most  classic  mould  of  head  he  has  ever 
beheld,  he  saw  among  the  Australian  natives.  He 
speaks  of  them  as  active,  strongly  formed  and  stately. 
Various  physical  types  probably  exist  among  them. 
In  general,  the  features  are  as  follows:  The  forehead 
is  narrow;  mouth  large,  with  thick  lips;  the  nose, 
depressed  and  widened  at  the  base,  but  often  aquiline ; 
the  beard  thick,  the  form  slight,  though  well  propor- 
tioned, and  color  black.  The  number  of  these  blacks 
in  Australia  is  said  to  be  about  200,000.  They  are 
supposed  to  be  all  of  the  same  stock,  though  this  con- 
clusion is  derived  more  from  a  resemblance  discovered 
in  a  few  words,  than  a  close  comparison  of  gramn-'ar. 


226  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

Not  a  Malay  word  is  found  in  their  language.  Of 
their  character,  a  competent  witness  (Rev.  Wm.  Rid- 
ley) says,  that  they  are  deficient  in  forethought  and 
concentrativeness,  but  that  in  mental  acicmen,  and  in 
quickness  of  sight  and  hearing,  they  are  superior  to 
the  whites.  They  are  generous,  honest  to  one  another, 
and  often  attentive  to  the  weak  and  the  aged,  though 
cruel  to  women.  Notwithstanding  their  barbarous 
condition,  there  exists  among  them  a  very  strict  divi- 
sion of  castes,  and  a  certain  kind  of  priesthood. 

INTELLECTUAL    CAPACITY. 

It  is  interesting  to  know  what  capacities  the  low- 
est tribe  or  race  of  the  human  family  may  show.  We 
learn,  from  quotations  of  a  recent  report  to  the  English 
Government  on  this  subject,  that  the  Australian  negroes 
show  minds  quick  and  keen — "rather  like  a  treasure 
sealed  up,  than  a  vacuum."  Their  perceptive  faculties 
are  remarkable — far  superior  to  those  of  Europeans — 
while,  as  might  be  expected,  they  are  deficient  In  the 
reflective  powers.  As  a  consequence,  the  children  are 
found  to  learn  an  external  study,  as  geography,  with 
great  readiness,  though  showing  much  inaptitude  for 
an  abstract  study  like  arithmetic.  Mr.  Parker,  a  vis- 
iting magistrate  of  the  school  in  Mt.  Franklin,  says,  that 
the  native  children  manifest  just  as  great  capacities 
for  improvement  as  do  English  children,  and  that  the 
main  obstacle  to  their  elevation  is  from  moral  rather 
than  physical  causes. 

The  numerals  of  the  Australian  languages  rarely 
reach  five,  and  generally  stop  at  three.  Some  affini- 
ties have  been  discovered  between  them  and  the 
Tamul. 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  227 

We  have  classed  the  Tasmanian  tribes  (of  Van 
Diemen's  Land)  with  them,  but  the  basis  for  classifica- 
tion is  as  yet  extremely  uncertain. 

The  great  difficulty  in  determining  the  races  of 
Oceanica  is,  that  the  tendency  of  a  nomadic  people  to 
continually  form  new  words  and  new  languages,  as 
they  found  new  colonics,  is  here  intensified  by  the 
separation  which  the  sea  naturally  causes.  There  is 
something,  too,  in  the  disposition  of  the  black  races 
which  has  doubtless  increased  this  tendency  to  disinte- 
gration. Crawford,  who  may  have  exaggerated  in 
this  particular,  states  that  there  are  forty  languages  on 
the  little  island  of  Timor,  and  many  hundreds  in 
Borneo. 

Nearly  all  writers  allow  that  climate  and  circum- 
stances have  produced  the  most  marked  effects  here 
on  persons  of  the  same  race.  Among  the  Tahitians 
and  Maorians,  for  instance,  the  lowest  castes  are  found 
nearly  as  black  as  negroes,  and  with  crisp,  woolly  hair, 
while  the  higher  (the  chiefs  and  others),  less  exposed 
to  the  sun  and  the  influences  of  the  weather,  resemble 
Europeans  both  in  features  and  complexion ;  though 
both,  there  is  every  reason  to  believe,  belong  to  the 
Polynesian  race.  Similar  differences  are  observed  on 
New  Zealand  among  the  blacks. 

The  Semangs,  the  blacks  of  Mallacca,  are  brown 
where  not  exposed  to  the  sun,  and  in  language  and 
character  have  so  strong  a  resemblance  to  the  Malays, 
as  to  be  considered  by  many,  a  tribe  of  that  race. 

The  points  of  resemblance  between  the  Polyne- 
sians and  the  Central  American  Indians  are  so  striking, 
as  to  induce  many  writers  to  assign  the  same  origin 
to  both  peoples. 

The  Asiatic  origin  of  the  Malay-Polynesian  races 


228  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

seems  to  us  clearly  indicated,  so  that  all  these  resem- 
blances cannot  be  considered  in  this  connection. 

(Brace:  The  Races  of  the  Old  World.) 

INFLUENCE  -OF  OCEAN  CURRENTS. 

I  have  quoted  thus  freely  from  the  works  of  Mr. 
Brace,  with  the  object,  not  only  of  proving  the  origin 
of  the  island  races,  but  with  the  view  of  tracing  the 
source  (only  in  a  general  way,  however)  of  a  portion 
of  the  inhabitants  of  North  and  South  America,  as  well 
as  the  islands  of  Oceanica.  In  another  portion  of  this 
work,  the  ocean  currents  of  the  Pacific  have  been  allu- 
ded to  as  the  great  highways  ovep  which  the  Asiatics 
voyaged,  to  people  the  New  World.  Mr.  Brooks,  in 
his  work  on  Japanese  Wrecks,  accompanied  by  a  map 
of  the  Northern  Pacific,  showing  the  location  of  wrecks 
discovered  within  a  few  hundred  years,  clearly  shows 
the  influence  of  the  northern  current.  They  a.re  trace- 
able from  a  short  distance  from  Japan  to  Kampt- 
chatka,  the  Aleutian  Isles,  Alaska,  British  America, 
Oregon,  California,  Mexico,  the  Equator,  and  westerly 
into  the  islands  of  the  South  Sea ;  always  being  found 
in  the  line  of  the  Japanese  Black  Stream.  It  is 
doubtful  if  any  of  these  wrecks  were  found  following 
the  other  course — that  is,  south  from  Japan,  and  eas- 
terly through  the  islands  of  the  Pacific,  agahist  winds 
and  currents,  to  the  American  shores. 

In  the  equatorial  regions  of  the  Pacific,  the  pre- 
vailing winds  and  the  currents,  always  flow  from  east 
to  west,  or  (in  a  plainer  way)  from  the  shores  of  the 
two  Americas  towards  Asia ;  the  northern  and  southern 
currents  meeting  at  the  equator  off  the  Mexican  coast, 
and    flowing   together    to    the    Indian  Ocean,   to  part 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  22g 

again,  and  sweep  around  the  North  and  South  Pacific, 
as  already  described. 

Between  the  PhilHppines,  the  Japanese  Islands, 
and  the  eastern  coast  of  Asia,  another  current  flows  to 
the  south,  and  into  the  Indian  Ocean ;  a  portion  some- 
times reaching  the  Peruvian  current  south  of  Australia, 
and  runninof  with  it  in  its  southern  course.  ^ 

This  inner  Asiatic  current,  if  it  may  be  so  called, 
explains  the  total  absence  of  Chinese  wrecks  in  our 
northern  regions,  and  at  the  same  time  accounts  for 
the  Chinese  wrecks  found  in  the  Indian  Ocean,  and 
even  at  the  Straits  of  Magellan,  on  the  west  coast  of 
South  America. 

If  we  readily  accept  the  views  of  many  writers, 
the  peopling  of  the  Americas  by  the  Asiatics  was  but 
natural  and  easy  of  accomplishment.  If  we  examine 
history,  facts  and  dates,  we  do  not  find  the  easy  views 
advanced,  sustained  by  them. 

ASIATIC    INFLUENCES    IN    PEOPLING    AMERICA. 

Grotius  says :  The  Peruvians  were  a  Chinese  col- 
ony, and  the  Spaniards  found,  at  the  entry  of  the  Paci- 
fic Ocean,  on  coming  through  the  Straits  of  Magellan, 
the  wrecks  of  Chinese  vessels. 

There  are  proofs,  clear  and  certain,  that  Mango 
Capac,  founder  of  the  Peruvian  race,  was  the  son  of 
Kublai  Khan,  the  commander  of  this  expedition,  and 
that  the  ancestors  of  Montezuma,  who  were  from  As- 
sam, arrived  about  the  same  time.  Every  custom  des- 
cribed by  their  Spanish  conquerors  proves  their  Asiatic 
oriofin. 

Again :  The  Hindoo,  Chinese  and  Japanese  annals 
all  correspond  in  recording  the  fact  that,  about  the  year 


230  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

1280,  Genghis  Khan,  a  great  Mongol  chief,  whose 
name  was  a  terror  in  Europe,  at  the  same  time  invaded 
China  with  hordes  of  barbarians  from  Tartary,  whom 
his  descendants  hold  in  subjection  at  the  present  time. 
Having  accomplished  this  object,  he  fitted  out  an  expe- 
dition consisting  of  240,000  men  in  400  ships,  under 
command  of  Kublai  Khan,  one  of  his  sons,  for  the 
purpose  of  conquering  Japan.  While  this  expedition 
was  on  the  passage  between  the  two  countries,  a  vio- 
lent storm  arose,  which  destroyed  a  great  part  of  the 
fleet,  and  drove  many  of  the  vessels  on  the  coast  of 
America. 

(Cronise:  Wealth  of  California.) 

Some  of  these  statements  are  hardly  clear.  The 
races  from  which  the  Montezumas  sprung,  were  natives 
of  Atzlan,  a  country  forming  at  that  time  a  small  por- 
tion of  northern  South  America,  and  extending  into 
South  Central  America.  In  about  11 80  a.  d.,  a 
portion  of  this  race  emigrated  to  the  valley  "of  Mex- 
ico, forming  the  foundations  from  which  the  Aztecs 
sprung.  If  this  statement  be  true,  Kublai  Kahn  did 
not  arrive  in  America  until  many  years  after.  If  the 
dates  are  correct,  neither  he  or  the  people  who  are 
said  to  have  reached  America  from  Assam,  about  the 
same  time,  can  be  claimed  as  the  founders  of  the  Aztec 
race. 

Probably  if  a  thousand  years  or  so  were  taken 
from  the  above  dates,  and  time  given  for  the  great 
oceanic  laws  governing  the  currents  of  the  Pacific,  as 
well  as  the  gradually  extending  ventures  of  a  natural 
maritime  people,  like  the  Chinese  and  Japanese,  we 
might  account  for  a  partial  peopling,  at  least,  of  the 
Americas  by  the  Asiatics. 

Nor  is  it  well,  in   this   connection,  to  isolate  ideas 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  231 

and  facts,  and  view  the  peopling  of  the  Americas  from 
the  Pacific  standpoint  alone,  or  to  ignore  the  influence 
of  the  great  ocean  currents  of  the  Atlantic,  or  the 
early  maritime  ventures  of  countries  not  on  our  side 
of  the  world,  and  the  bearing  they  have  had  on  the 
ethnology  of  America. 

ISLAND    RACES. 

Among  the  islands  of  the  Pacific,  the  lines  sepa- 
rating races  are  very  closely  defined,  and  through  what 
would  seem  perfectly  natural  causes.  In  nearly  every 
case  the  peopling  of  the  islands  can  be  accounted  for, 
by  supposing  that  their  migratory  habits  were  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  natural  laws  controlling  the  winds 
and  currents  in  these  regions. 

Closely  following  the  migratory  movements  of  the 
human  race,  as  an  example,  we  may  take  the  animal 
kingdom.  A  north  and  south  line  can  be  drawn  through 
the  Eastern  Archipelago,  where  animals  of  the  larger 
growth  cease  to  exist.  Borneo,  Sumatra,  Java  and 
some  of  the  other  islands  have  the  animal  kingdom 
of  India  and  Asia  well  represented  in  the  elephant, 
lion,  tiger,  panther,  rhinoceros,  hippopotamus,  ourang- 
utang  and  monkey,  with  the  reptilian  and  feathered 
species  of  the  larger  kind,  all  partaking  of  the  species 
found  on  the  main  land  of  Asia.  Of  this  latter  coun- 
try, it  is  believed  that  the  islands  named,  at  one  time 
formed  a  part. 

Still  another  parallel,  running  north  and  south 
and  further  to  the  east,  may  be  drawn,  where  the 
larger  of  the  species  named  above,  have  never  been 
known  to  exist.  Thus,  the  islands  of  New  Zealand,  Tas- 
mania, Australia,  New  Guinea  and  others  in  the  same 


232  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

range,  are  entirely  free  from  the  animals  enumerated, 
excepting  the  monkey  tribes,  and  in  Australia  the 
kangaroo. 

Another  parallel  can  be  traced,  running  north 
and  south  and  still  further  east,  through  the  island 
groups  of  the  Society,  Tongas,  Fijis,  Samoas,  Mar- 
shalls.  New  Hebrides  and  the  Carolines,  where  hardly 
any  animal  larger  than  the  dog  or  rat,  can  be  found 
native  to  the  soil.  These  parallels  are  followed  just 
as  closely  by  the  reptilian  and  feathered  tribes. 

The  latter,  whose  migratory  powers  are  well 
known  all  over  the  world,  seem  curiously  to  draw  the 
species  line  of  locality  or  habitation,  as  closely  as  those 
of  the  animal  kingdom.  In  the  Bird  of  Paradise  we  find 
a  marked  instance.  Their  native  home  is  New  Guinea, 
where  as  many  as  twenty  of  this  species  of  birds  may 
be  found,  and  are  hardly  ever  to  be  met  witli  in  any  of 
the  other  island  groups. 

This  follows,  also,  in  nearly  as  strictly  tiefined 
lines,  with  the  inhabitants  of  Oceanica.  The  people 
of  Borneo,  Java,  Sumatra  and  the  Molluccas  partake 
of  the  Malay,  Hindoo  and  Chinese,  being  all,  in  a  com- 
parative sense,  a  maritime  people. 

At  Australia  this  race  element  ceases  altogether. 
The  natives  are  bushmen,  and  root-diggers,  with  no 
knowledge  of  navigation  ;  not  canoe-builders,  or  fisher- 
men, nor  in  any  way  resembling  a  people  who  "go  down 
to  the  sea  in  ships."  The  same  is  true  of  the  New 
Zealander  and  the  Tasmanian.  Yet,  but  a  litde  to  the 
north,  on  New  Guinea,  and  in  the  Carolines,  the  na- 
tives have  some  knowledge  of  canoe-building,  sailing 
and  maritime  ventures.  So  on  through  the  Mol- 
luccas and  Phillippines,  into  Japan,  where  the  art  of 
ship-building  and   navigation,  as  among  the  islanders 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  233 

of  the  Pacific,  may  be  said  to  have  been  brought  to 
comparative  perfection. 

East  from  AustraHa,  in  the  Solomon  Archipelago, 
and  among  the  Marshall  islanders,  the  Samoans,  in 
fact,-  as  far  east  as  the  island  groups  extend,  north 
and  south  of  the  line,  the  Asiatic  features  are  prom- 
inent. The  inhabitants  are  expert  canoe  and  boat 
builders,  with  considerable  knowledge  of  navigation, 
making  long  voyages  in  their  little  crafts  with  lateen 
sails  and  outriggers  to  windward,  and  altogether  per- 
fectly at  home  on  the  water.  These  people,  with  the 
exception  of  the  Fijis,  and  others  of  the  wooly-headed 
type,  have  the  features  and  many  of  the  characteris- 
tics of  the  Chinese  and  Japanese — probably  coming 
from  those  countries,  making  the  grand  circles  of  the 
ocean  currents,  with  favoring  winds,  at  very  early 
periods. 

The  many  w^recks  of  Japanese  vessels  found  in 
the  Northern  Pacific,  following  the  line  of  the  ocean 
currents  clear  into  the  island  groups,  seems  important 
evidence  in  favor  of  the  above  statement, 

A  like  statement  may  be  made  of  the  maritime 
ventures  of  the  Chinese,  south  of  the  equator,  many 
traces  of  whose  early  settlements,  habits  and  archi- 
tecture are  to  be  found  in  South  America, 

This  would  account  for  the  absence  of  animal  life 
of  the  larger  kind  on  the  easterly  islands,  as  the 
length  of  the  voyages,  together  with  the  small  size 
of  the  shipping  of  the  earlier  periods,  would  make 
the  carrying  of  animals  almost  an  impossibility. 

The  prevailing  winds  follow  the  course  of  the 
currents  through  the  equatorial  regions  of  the  Pacific 
from  east  to  west.  Assuming  the  movements  of  the 
ocean   streams   to   be   twenty-one  miles  per  day,  and 


234  ^-^^  ISLAND  WORLD 

that  favoring  winds  would  add  to  the  floating  powers 
of  a  boat  or  canoe  fifteen  miles  a  day  additional,  we 
would  have  a  favoring  drift  from  east  to  west  of 
thirty-six  miles  per  day.  Thus  we  might  assume,  that 
a  journey  of  i,ooo  miles  per  month  could  be  made 
without  the  aid  of  sails  or  oars.  Against  such  favor- 
ing circumstances  it  does  not  seem  possible  for  a  peo- 
ple without  the  modern  appliances  of  steam  and  sail, 
to  migrate. 

Many  traces  of  ruins  of  architecture,  similar  In 
form  to  the  pyramidal  structures  of  the  ancient  Peru- 
vians and  Chilians,  are  to  be  found  in  some  of  the 
islands,  on  Ascension  particularly.  Great  blocks  of 
hewn  granite  are  to  be  found,  with  other  forms  of 
building  stone,  scattered  over  the  ground  in  many 
places,  and  lying  under  water  in  some  of  the  harbors. 
It  was  thought  at  one  time  that  these  had  been  trans- 
ported from  great  distances,  and  that  the  geological 
formations  of  the  material  were  foreign  to  anything  to 
be  found  on  the  islands.  Closer  research,  however, 
revealed  the  quarries  from  which  the  stones  had  been 
taken,  located  in  the  interior  of  the  islands  where  such 
ruins  were  discovered.* 

This  fact  has  spoiled  many  curious,  mysterious 
theories  that  were  advanced  in  regrard  to  the  buildlngr 
material,  and  leaves  us  but  to  account  for  the  people 
whose  intellisfence  and  skill,  indicates  their  source  to 
be  from  countries  foreigfn  to  these  islands.  From  the 
data  (a  review  of  which  would  but  tire  the  reader)  ob- 
tained on  this  subjedt,  the  race  origin  of  many  of  the 
islanders  of  Oceanica  is  clearly  indicated  to  be  Chinese 
and  Japanese. 

*The  stone  implements,  with  the  hieroglyphical  writing  and  draw- 
ings on  the  rocks,  found  on  Pitcairn  by  the  Bounty  mutineers,  may 
help,  some  day,  to  trace  the  history  of  the  ancient  islanders 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  235 

THE  EQUATORIAL  CURRENTS. 

As  my  purpose  has  been  throughout  this  work  to 
present  facts,  untrammeled  by  personal  opinion,  for 
the  consideration  of  the  reader,  I  add  a  few  notes  be- 
low, taken  from  experiences  and  researches  of  others, 
that  may  modify  or  change  altogether  some  of  the 
ideas  already  advanced : 

The  famous  volcanic  eruption  on  the  island  of 
Krakatoa,  just  west  of  Java,  a  year  since,  startled  the 
civilized  portion  of  the  world  with  the  "blue"  and 
"red"  and  other  "stranofe  sunsets  and  sunrisino^s"  it 
caused.  Just  now,  a  year  after  date,  Ponape  is  gath- 
ering up  some  of  the  products  of  that  eruption ;  large 
beds  of  pumice-stone,  in  places,  are  covering  the  sea 
with  its  gray  hue,  as  if  an  immense  blanket  were 
spread  out.  Months  since,  I  saw  an  account  of  one  of 
the  harbors,  near  that  eruption,  filled  with  this  material 
ten  feet  deep,  and  almost  as  compact  as  an  ice-floe. 
The  winds,  and  especially  the  currents,  have  taken 
some  of  that  disQforgfed  mass  and  floated  it  to  our 
Ponape  reefs.  A  remarkable  fact  about  this  is  the 
continuity  of  an  easterly  or  northeasterly  set  of  the 
ocean's  current  near  the  line.  No  doubt  masses  of  the 
ejected  pumice  will  float  along  on  the  same  current  to 
the  shores  of  South  America,  more  than  half  way  belt- 
ing the  earth.  Our  natives  call  it  "sea-fruit,"  for  they 
have  no  idea  where  or  how  it  was  gendered,  but  sup- 
pose the  sea  is  the  mother. 

To  some  of  the  sandy  coral  islands  lying  in  the 
track,  it  will  be  a  very  god-send.  The  material  is 
gathered,  crushed,  and  put  on  beds  of  taro  as  a  fer- 
tilizer. Mere  sand-beaches,  or  banks,  furnish  but 
little  to  fertilize  vegetation. 


236  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

But  Krakatoa,  or  Krakatao,  has  other  interests  to 
Ponape.  The  word  is  of  two  syllables — the  first,  the 
specific  name,  and  tao  or  tau\  meaning  "strait;"  hence 
the  term  means  "Kraka  of  the  strait."  But  tao  or  tare 
is  pure  Ponapian,  and  here  also  means  a  strait — a  pas- 
sage of  water,  Java,  then,  and  Ponape  are  blood- 
related.  Indeed,  centuries  and  centuries  since,  at 
least  as  far  back  as  when  Solomon  was  king,  Java  had 
another  kind  of  eruption,  sending  off  here  ever  so 
many  of  her  vocables.  But  recently  I  counted  more 
than  fifty  of  these,  some  of  them  names  of  places  on 
this  island.  These  vocables,  of  course,  took  passage 
with  the  Malay  tongue.  And  now  Java  is  sending 
fields  of  pumice-stone.  Some  day  those  who  are  on 
the  east  of  her  must  send  back  or  set  afloat  to  her, 
truths  from  God's  Word, 

(Rev.  Edw.  T.  Doane,  Ponape,  Micronesia). 

This  would  indicate  an  equatorial  current  flowing 
from  west  to  east,  in  an  opposite  direction  to,  and 
between,  the  two  great  ocean  currents  of  the  Pacific. 
The  speed  of  the  current  would  be  about  eight  miles 
per  day,  if  we  estimate  the  distance  from  the  island  of 
Java  to  that  of  Ponape  to  be  3,000  miles. 

Again — from  Wallace,  Muller,  Dr.  A.  B.  Meyer, 
Schouw-Santvoort,  Proc.  Roy.  Geo.  Soc,  1881,  and 
Ency,  Brit,,  vol,  15,  I  quote  the  following: 

Long  considered  as  an  independent  division  of 
mankind,  the  Malays  are  now  more  generally  affiliated 
to  the  Mongol  stock — of  which  A.  R.  Wallace,  De 
Ouatrefao-es  and  other  eminent  naturalists  resfard 
them  as  a  simple  variety,  more  or  less  modified  by 
mixture  with  other  elements.  These  considerations 
also  enable  us   to  fix  the  true  centre  of  dispersion  of 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  237 

the  Malay  race,  rather  in  Mallacca  than  in  Sumatra, 
contrary  to  the  generally  received  opinion.  If  they  are 
to  be  physically  allied  to  the  Mongol  stock,  it  is  obvi- 
ous that  the  earliest  migration  must  have  been  from 
High  Asia,  southward  to  the  peninsula,  and  thence  to 
Sumatra,  possibly  at  a  time  when  the  island  still  formed 
a  part  of  the  mainland.  The  national  traditions  of  a 
dispersion  from  Menangkabo  or  Palembang,  in  South 
Sumatra,  must  accordingly  be  understood  to  refer 
to  later  movements,  and  more  especially  to  the 
diffusion  of  the  civilized  Malay  peoples,  who  first  ac- 
quired a  really  national  development  in  Sumatra,  in 
comparatively  recent  times.  From  this  point  they 
spread  to  the  peninsula,  to  Borneo,  Sooloo,  and  other 
parts  of  Malaysia,  apparently  since  their  conversion  to 
Islam,  althouofh  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  other 
waves  of  migfration  must  have  reached  Further  India, 
and  especially  Camboja,  if  not  from  the  same  region, 
at  all  events  from  Java,  at  much  earlier  dates.  The 
impulse  to  these  earlier  movements  must  be  attributed 
to  the  introduction  of  Indian  culture  through  the  Hindu 
and  Buddhist  missionaries,  perhaps  two  or  three  cen- 
turies before  the  Christian  era.  During  still  more 
prehistoric  times,  various  sections  of  the  Malay  and 
Indonesian  stocks  were  diffused  westward  to  Madag-as- 
car,  where  the  Hovas,  of  undoubted  Malay  descent, 
still  hold  the  political  supremacy,  and  eastward  to  the 
Phillippines,  Formosa,  Micronesia  and  Polynesia.  This 
astonishing  expansion  of  the  Malaysian  peoples 
throughout  the  Oceanic  area,  is  sufficiently  attested 
by  the  diffusion  of  a  common  Malayo-Polynesian 
speech  from  Madagascar  to  Easter  Island,  and  from 
Hawaii  to  New  Zealand. 


2j8  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

"TABOO." 

One  of  the  curious  customs  among  the  islanders 
of  the  South  Sea,  is  the  practice  of  that  rite,  so  Httle 
understood  by  the  traveler,  who  is  not  "native  and  to 
the  manor  born" — "taboo." 

Tabu,  Tapu,  or  Tambu,  a  Polynesian  term,  deno- 
ting an  institution  found  everywhere,  and  always  essen- 
tially the  same,  in  the  Polynesian  Islands  and  in  New 
Zealand.  Its  primary  meanings  seem  to  be  exactly 
the  same  as  those  of  the  Hebrew  toebah.  This  word, 
like  the  Greek  anathema,  the  Latin  sacer  and  the 
French  sacre,  and  the  corresponding  and  similar  terms 
in  most  languages,  has  a  double  meaning — a  good 
sense  and  a  bad ;  it  signifies,  on  the  one  hand,  sacred, 
consecrated ;  on  the  other  hand,  accursed,  abominable, 
unholy.  It  results,  from  a  thing  being  held  sacred, 
that  certain  acts  are  forbidden  with  reference  to  it, 
.and  from  any  act  deemed  abominable ;  that  it  is  for- 
bidden. A  notion  of  prohibition  thus  attaches  to  the 
word  tabu,  and  this  is  in  many  cases  the  most  promi- 
nent notion  connected  with  it.  The  term  is  often  used 
substantially  in  the  sense  of  a  prohibition — a  prohibi- 
tory commandment.  If  a  burial  ground  has  been  con- 
secrated, it  is  tabu;  to  fight  in  it,  then,  is  sacrilegious  and 
prohibited,  and  this  also  is  tabu ;  moreover,  those  per- 
sons are  tabu  who  have  violated  its  sanctity  by  fighting 
in  it,  and  they  are  loosely  and  popularly  said  to  have 
broken  the  tabu.  This  example  illustrates  all  the  uses 
of  the  word.  It  has  furnished  to  the  English  language 
the  now  familiar  phrase  of  being  "tabooed" — that  is, 
forbidden. 

(Chambers's  Ency.) 

The  observance  of  the  custom  amone  the  natives 
of  many  of  the  island  groups  is  universal  at  all  times 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  239 

and  places,  and  fortunately  has  been  the  means,  not  only 
of  protecting  strangers  from  insult  and  injury,  but  the 
preserving  of  life  as  well.  In  Micronesia,  the  ordinary 
native  can  select  a  favorite  cocoanut  tree,  banana  plant, 
or  the  hut  in  which  he  lives,  and  protect  them  from 
the  inroads  of  all  comers,  either  by  erecting  a  monu- 
ment of  loose  stones,  or  laying  them  in  a  peculiar 
manner  in  front  of  his  dwelling,  or  by  tying  a  banana, 
palm  or  plantain  leaf  around  the  tree  or  plant,  which 
indicates  that  it  is  tabu.  Thus  we  see  that  the  exer- 
cise of  the  right  is  not  confined  to  the  chiefs  or  people 
of  hio-h  deeree,  but  is  in  oreneral  use  among  the  lower 
orders.  The  women,  unless  wives  or  daughters  of 
chiefs,  are  not  allowed  to  exercise  the  right ;  yet  a  man 
may  protect  any  of  the  sex  from  insult  or  injury,  by 
the  observance  of  the  forms  required. 

A   SMALL   TRIBUTE    TO    RELIGIOUS    MISSIONS    AND    MIS- 
SIONARIES. 

The  inception  of  religious  missions  dates  far  back 
in  the  biblical  ages.  Their  history,  or  the  life  and 
works  of  a  people  who  practice  what  they  preach,  and 
convey  the  good  they  have  acquired  from  religion,  civi- 
lization and  enlightenment,  to  those  of  the  world  less 
fortunate  in  this  respect,  would  fill  volumes. 

It  is  but  litde  to  praise  the  efforts  of  padent  and 
daring  workers,  pioneers  of  light,  in  distant,  dangerous, 
inhospitable  lands,  or  speak  of  the  many,  rich  and  poor, 
who  contribute  a  portion  of  their  effects  to  the  good 
cause — even  to  the  widow's  mite — and  furnish  the 
sinews  of  war  to  a  noble  army  of  Christian  workers, 
the  benefits  of  whose  enlightening  course  through  the 
pagan  world  can  hardly  be  overestimated. 


240  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

With  this  in  view,  I  take  pleasure  in  citing  a  few 
of  the  great  benefits  resulting  from  the  works  of  Chris- 
tian missions  in  modern  times. 

In  China,  Japan,  India — in  fact,  in  all  parts  of  Asia, 
Africa,  the  two  Americas,  and  in  Oceanica,  we  find 
their  churches  and  schools.  Following  closely  in  the 
footsteps  of  adventurous  missionaries,  we  see  that  boon 
to  mankind,  the  printing  press.  Used  not  alone  in 
the  translation  of  the  Bible  and  religious  works,  but, 
as  in  Shanghai,  where  ten  presses  are  in  almost  con- 
stant use,  we  find  them  printing  works  on  science, 
medicine,  law,  history,  agriculture,  school  books,  etc., 
and  scattering  them  broadcast  throughout  the  land. 
Thousands  of  volumes,  on  one  hundred  and  fifty  dif- 
ferent subjects,  are  printed  and  circulated  among  the 
people.  And  all  this  but  a  tithe  of  the  work  accom- 
plished among  the  pagans  of  other  countries.  Chris- 
tian missionaries  have  translated  the  Bible,  school  books, 
and  hundreds  of  other  instructive,  useful  works,  into 
over  two  hundred  lano-uaofes  and  dialects. 

Many  of  them,  in  addition  to  their  sacredotal 
acquirements,  are  educated  physicians  as  well.  At  the 
principal  stations  of  the  mission  world,  medical  dispen- 
saries are  to  be  found,  whose  drugs,  skillfully  used, 
present  an  effective  barrier  to  the  spread  of  epidemical 
diseases.  Of  late  days  it  has  become  customary  to 
educate  the  women  of  the  societies  in  medicine, 
to  whose  ministering  cares  thousands  of  pagans  owe  a 
healthful  existence. 

In  one  district  in  Africa,  between  Sierra  Leone 
and  Gaboon,  a  distance  of  nearly  2,000  miles,  twelve 
Protestant  societies  have  established  missions.  They 
have  something  over  20,000  children  being  educated  in 
their   schools,  and   many  more  adults,  as  members  ot 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  241 

Christian  churches.  Under  this  influence  the  slave 
trade  has  altogether  disappeared,  where  in  former 
times  it  counted  its  victims  at  the  rate  of  20,000  a 
year. 

Among  the  5,000,000  inhabiting  the  island  of  Mad- 
agascar, 500,000  are  members  of  Christian  churches. 

Among  the  islands  of  the  Pacific,  particularly 
those  of  Polynesia,  Melanesia  and  Micronesia,  the  ad- 
vancement and  benefits  are  fully  as  marked.  Some 
sixty  or  seventy  years  ago,  sunk  in  the  degrading 
depths  of  paganism,  a  great  many  of  them  cannibals, 
now  number  over  500  islands  under  the  care  of  the 
missions. 

Over  twenty  of  their  languages  have  been  re- 
duced to  writing.  Churches  and  schools  adorn  the 
land ;  the  sound  of  the  axe,  saw  and  hammer,  with 
the  busy  hum  of  manufactures,  replace  grim  war  and 
the  hideous  rites  and  yells  of  the  man-eater. 

In  these  islands  it  has  been  truly  said  that  hun- 
dreds of  native  teachers  and  missionaries,  who  have 
themselves  attended  the  feasts  and  joined  in  the  re- 
volting rites  of  the  cannibals,  may  now  be  found  suc- 
cessfully pointing  the  way,  among  their  heathen  breth- 
ren. The  200  churches  and  1,400  schools  in  the  Fiji 
Islands,  the  traditional  home  of  the  man-eater,  will 
equally  serve  "to  point  a  moral  or  adorn  a  tale"  of 
missionary  work. 

Catholic  and  Protestant  alike,  are  establishine  re- 
ligious  stations  in  all  parts  of  the  pagan  world,  and 
with  a  friendly  rivalry,  that  but  adds  strength  and 
effectiveness  to  their  efforts. 

Many  of  the  obstacles  to  be  overcome  by  the  mis- 
sionary, particularly  among  the   islands  of  the   South 

Sea,  are  not  the  fierce  intractable   disposition  of  the 
*  16 


242  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

natives,  but  the  barriers  placed  in  the  way  by  a  low- 
class  of  people,  already  referred  to  in  this  work. 
Beach-combers,  wreckers  and  buccaneers,  castaways 
from  our  civilization,  have  had  more  to  do  with  the 
modern  introduction  of  disease  and  deo-radation 
among  the  natives,  than  inherited  paganism.  The 
man  who  first  taught  them  how  to  turn  a  pleasant, 
healthful  drink,  the  sap  of  the  cocoanut  palm,  into 
arrack,  a  vile  brain-entangling  rum,  has  introduced  a 
degrading  element  more  to  be  dreaded  than  pagan 
superstition. 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  243 


CHAPTER   XVI. 


BIRTHr  GROW^TH  A^SD   DSATH   OP   ISL,A:^{DS. 


Imprison'd  fires  in  the  close  dungeons  pent, 
Roar  to  get  loose,  and  struggle  for  a  vent; 
Eating  their  way,  and  undermining  all, 
'Till  with  a  mighty  burst,  whole  mountains  fall. 

Addison. 

THAT  great  mystery  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  sunken 
Atlantis,  has  formed  the  theme  of  tongue  and  pen 
for  aores.  Veiled  in  tradition  and  romance,  little 
has  been  ventured  in  the  way  of  a  truthful  explana- 
tion, of  the  fate  of  the  great  island  and  her  people. 

Yet  in  plain  view,  and  without  the  garb  of  fiction, 
we  have  the  birth  and  death  of  islands  in  almost  con- 
stant operation  in  the  Pacific,  as  well  as  in  other  parts 
of  the  globe.  In  this  connection,  I  quote  from  a  recent 
publication : 

Geographers  complain  that  soon  there  will  be  no 
more  worlds  for  them  to  conquer,  and  the  Danes  have 
ever  since  the  loss  of  the  Duchies,  looked  forward 
with  doleful  forebodings  to  the  time  when  their  coun- 
try  will  be  still  further  shorn  of  its  fair  proportions. 
Nature  is,  however,  bountiful,  and  now,  by  throwing 
up  a  new  island  off  the  shores  of  Iceland,  it  has  added 


244  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

In  an  appreciable  degree  to  the  territories  of  Kino^ 
Christian,  and  to  the  regions  which  still  await  the  ex- 
ploration of  the  traveler.  It  Is  true,  the  new  land  is 
only  a  volcanic  cone,  and  as  it  was  the  result  of  sub- 
terranean fire,  may,  like  so  many  of  its  predecessors, 
born  of  the  throes  of  mother  earth,  sink  again  into 
the  ocean  from  which  it  sprang. 

At  various  times,  especially  after  some  severe 
disturbance  of  Hekla,  similar  Islands  have  shown 
themselves  above  the  waves,  but  generally,  with  the 
exception  of  Nyoe,  which  was  thrown  up  last  cen- 
tury, have  been  worn  away  by  the  action  of  the  surf, 
before  geologists  could  accurately  examine  the  vol- 
canic scoriae  and  ashes  of  which  they  were  composed. 
In  1811  Captain  Tillard,  of  H.  M.  S.  Sabrma,  wit- 
nessed such  an  islet  arise  during  a  volcanic  outburst 
in  the  Azores,  and  proudly  named  it  after  his  ship. 
But  when  he  returned  a  few  weeks  later,  to  survey 
and  annex  his  acquisition,  not  a  trace  of  Sabrina 
Island  was  visible.  The  sea  had  reclaimed  it.  In  the 
volcanic  reeion  of  the  Mediterranean  several  similar 
births  of  land  have  been  recorded  by  ancient  and 
modern  writers.  But  the  most  notorious  of  them 
was  Graham  Island,  which  arose  in  the  year  1831, 
some  thirty  miles  off  the  southwest  coast  of  Sicily. 
For  a  few  weeks  much  ink  was  shed  over  it,  and  at 
one  time  it  was  feared  that  gunpowder  would  be 
burnt  in  the  assertion  of  the  angry  claims  which  were 
made  for  the  wretched  2,300  yards  of  ^tnaic  cinders. 
The  names  of  Sciacca,  Julia,  Hotham,  Graham  and 
Corrao  were  suggestively  given  to  it  by  the  fieiy 
mariners  who  cruised  around  it,  ready  to  land  and 
hoist  their  countries  fiaofs  the  moment  the  scoriae 
cooled.     But   before    Europe   was   embroiled  in   war 


OF   THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  245 

about  it,  Graham  Island  vanished,  and  so  settled  the 
dispute  in  its  own  simple  way. 

After  the  destruction  of  Krakatoa  by  the  great 
Javan  earthquake  of  1883,  twenty-one  new  islands  ap- 
peared in  the  Sunda  Straits,  and  only  last  year,  one 
hitherto  unknown,  rose  above  the  sea  off  the  shores  of 
Alaska. 

In  all  these  cases,  volcanic  action  has  been  the 
ostensible  cause  of  the  formation  of  these  specks  in 
the  ocean,  But  in  1871  Captains  Luzen  and  Mack 
discovered  to  the  north  of  Nova  Zembla,  a  group  of 
islets  just  above  the  sea,  on  the  very  spot  where,  in 
1854,  William  Barrant  had  found  soundings.  On  the 
two  largest,  which  were  named  Brown  and  Hellwalld's 
Islands,  tropical  fruits  were  picked  up,  tossed  hither  by 
the  northern  extension  of  the  Gulf  Stream.  Hence 
the  group  was  named  the  Gulf  Stream  Islands,  and  as 
the  land  in  this  portion  of  the  Polar  basin  is  undergo- 
ing a  slow  secular  elevation,  just  as  in  other  places  it  is 
sinking,  in  the  course  of  a  century  or  two  the  Arctic 
navigator  may  find  in  that  direction  something  worthy 
of  a  flag  and  an  entry  on  his  chart. 

From  the  latest  date  at  hand,  the  islands  formed 
in  the  Straits  of  Sunda,  alluded  to  in  the  above  article, 
have  disappeared  in  the  sea,  and  smooth  navigable 
waters  roll  above  their  tombs. 

VOLCANIC    AND    EARTHQUAKE    LORE. 

A  small  island  lying  off  the  northeast  coast  of 
Sumbawa,  named  Gunong  Api,  must  here  be  men- 
tioned, because  it  contains  a  volcano,  and  forms  a 
part  of  that  "belt  of  fire  "  to  which  we  have  adverted 
as  one  of  the  most  remarkable  physical  features  of 
the  Indian  Archipelago. 


246  THE  ISLAND  WORLDS 

It  is  recorded  that  the  inhabitants  of  Java,  when 
the  eruption  began  (on  the  above  island),  mistook 
the  explosion  for  discharges  of  artillery,  and  at  Jay- 
okarta,  a  distance  of  480  miles,  a  force  of  soldiers 
was  hastily  dispatched  to  the  relief  of  a  neighboring 
port  that  was  supposed  to  have  been  attacked  by  an 
enemy.  At  Surabaya,  gun-boats  were  ordered  off  to 
the  relief  of  ships  which  were  defending  themselves, 
it  was  thought,  against  pirates  in  the  Madura  Strait ; 
while  at  two  places  on  the  coast,  boats  put  off  to 
the  assistance  of  supposed  ships  in  distress.  For 
five  days  these  reports  continued,  and  on  the  fifth 
the  sky  over  the  eastern  part  of  Java  grew  dark  with 
ashy  showers,  so  that  the  sea  was  invisible.  Accord- 
ing to  Mr.  Crawford,  the  sky  at  Surabaya  did  not  be- 
come as  clear  for  several  months,  as  it  usually  is  in  the 
southeast  monsoons. 

Eastward,  the  din  of  the  explosions  reached  the 
island  of  Ternate,  near  Gilolo,  a  distance  of  720  geo- 
graphical miles,  and  so  distinctly  was  it  heard  that 
"the  resident  sent  out  a  boat  to  look  for  the  ship 
which  was  supposed  to  have  been  firing  signals." 
Westward,  it  was  heard  at  Moko-moko,  near  Ben- 
coolen,  or  970  geographical  miles. 

Dr.  Junghuhn  thinks  that  within  a  circle  described 
by  a  radius  of  210  miles,  the  average  depth  of  the 
ashes  was  at  least  two  feet,  a  circumstance  which  will 
enable  the  reader  to  form  some  idea  of  the  tremen- 
dous character  of  the  eruption.  The  mountain,  in 
fact,  must  have  ejected  several  times  its  own  mass, 
and  yet  no  subsidence  has  been  observed  in  the  ad- 
joining area,  and  apparently  the  only  change  is,  that 
during  the  outbreak.  Tamboro  lost  two-thirds  of  its 
previous  height. 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  24.7 

The  Rajah  of  Sangir,  a  village  about  fourteen 
miles  southeast  of  the  volcano,  was  an  eye-witness  of 
the  eruption,  and  thus  describes  it: 

About  7  p.  M.,  on  the  loth  of  April  (181 5),  three 
distinct  columns  of  flame  burst  forth  near  the  summit 
of  the  mountain,  all  of  them  apparently  within  the 
verge  of  the  crater:  and  after  ascending,  separately, 
to  a  very  great  height,  united  their  tops  in  the  air  in  a 
troubled,  confused  manner.  In  a  short  time  the  whole 
mountain  next  to  Sangir  appeared  like  a  mass  of 
liquid  fire,  extending  itself  in  every  direction.  The 
fire  and  columns  of  flame  continued  to  ragfe  with 
unabated  fury  until  the  darkness,  caused  by  the  quan- 
tity of  falling  matter,  obscured  it  about  8  p.  m.  Stones 
at  this  time  fell  very  thick  at  Sangir,  some  of  them 
as  large  as  a  man's  two  fists,  but  generally  not  exceed- 
ing the  size  of  walnuts. 

Between  9  and  10  p.  m.  showers  of  ashes  began 
to  fall,  and  soon  afterwards  a  violent  whirlwind  en- 
sued, which  overthrew  nearly  every  house  in  the  village 
of  Sangir,  carrying  along  with  it,  their  lighter  portions 
and  thatched  roofs.  In  that  part  of  the  district  of  San- 
gir, adjoining  the  volcano,  its  effects  were  much  more 
severe ;  it  tore  up  by  the  roots  the  largest  trees,  and 
whirling  them  in  the  air,  dashed  them  around  in  the 
wildest  confusion,  along  with  men,  houses,  cattle,  and 
whatever  else  came  within  the  range  of  its  fury.  The 
sea  rose  nearly  twelve  feet  higher  than  it  had  ever  been 
known  before,  and  completely  destroyed  the  only 
small  spots  of  rice  lands  in  Sangir,  sweeping  away 
houses  and  everything  within  its  reach. 

The  captain  of  a  ship  dispatched  from  Macassar, 
to  the  scene  of  this  awful  phenomenon,  stated,  that  as 
he   approached    the    coast,  he   passed   through  great 


24&  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

quantities  of  pumice  stone  floating  on  the  sea,  which 
had  at  first  the  appearance  of  shoals,  so  that  he  was 
deceived  into  sending  a  boat  to  examine  one,  which  at 
the  distance  of  a  mile,  he  supposed  to  be  a  dry  sand- 
bank, upwards  of  three  miles  in  length,  with  black  rocks 
projecting  above  it  here  and  there. 

Mr.  Bickmore  speaks  of  seeing  the  .same  kind  of 
stones  floating  over  the  sea,  when  approaching  (in 
April,  1865)  the  Strait  of  Sunda.  He  adds:  Besides 
the  quantities  of  this  porous,  foam-like  lava  that  are 
thrown  directly  into  the  sea  by  such  eruptions,  great 
quantities  remain  on  the  declivities  of  the  volcano  and 
in  the  surrounding  mountains,  much  of  which  is  con- 
veyed by  the  rivers,  during  the  rainy  season,  to  the 
ocean. 

(Bickmore:  Travels  in  the  Eastern  Archipelago.) 
VOLCANIC    FIRE-BELT    OF    THE    WESTERN    HEMISPHERE. 

Humboldt  gives  a  list  of  the  volcanoes  of  the 
world,  calculated  many  years  ago.  It  therefore  may 
be  accepted  as  under-estimated,  as  there  are  some  900 
volcanoes,  extinct  and  active,  to  be  found  in  the 
Eastern  Archipelago  alone. 

Europe 7,  with    4  active. 

Atlantic  Islands 14,  "  8  " 

Africa 3,  "  i 

Continental  Asia. 25,  "  15  " 

Asiatic  Islands 189,  "  no  " 

Indian  Ocean 9,  "  5  '! 

;            South  Sea 40,  "  26  " 

North  and  South  America 120,  "  56  " 

407,      "   225 

As  will  be  seen  by  the  map  accompanying  this 
work,  the  volcanic  fire-belt  very  nearly  surrounds  and 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  249 

outlines  the  western  hemisphere.  At  Mount  Erebus, 
but  a  few  hundred  miles  from  the  South  Pole,  we  see 
one  of  Nature's  grandest  outbursts — one  of  the  world's 
greatest  volcanoes  in  ceaseless  eruption.  With  its 
lurid  glare  reflected  back  in  a  hundred  ways  by  the  icy 
mirrors  of  frozen  seas,  and  the  prismatic  colorings  of 
towering  icebergs,  it  forms  a  spectacle  too  grand  for 
description.  Based  and  capped  in  the  regions  of  per- 
petual ice  and  snow,  its  fiery  peak,  13,000  feet,  reach- 
ing up  in  the  clouds,  is  a  beacon  light  in  an  imknown, 
untrodden  land. 


THROUGH    SOUTH   AMERICA. 

From  this  source  we  shall  trace  the  volcanic,  erup- 
tic  fire-belt.  Making  its  way  north,  the  great  subter- 
ranean fire-stream  —  one  branch  of  which  passes 
under  the  South  Shetland  Islands,  and  on  under  the 
restless  Atlantic ;  the  other  passes  through  Terra  del 
Fuego,  and  across  the  Straits  of  Magellan  into  South 
America.  Here  the  fiery  current  forces  its  resistless 
way  under  the  towering  peaks  of  the  Chilean  Andes, 
breaking  out  at  the  volcanic  peaks  of  Acacagua,  Hul- 
liaciaca,  Villarica.  San  Jose,  Peteroa,  Antuco,  Hama- 
tua,  Chilian,  Calbuco,  Corcovado,  Osomo  and  Zandeles. 
Through  Bolivia,  appearing  in  the  volcanoes  of  Isluya, 
and  Sajama,  whose  peaks  tower  22,350  feet  above  the 
sea,  and  on  into  Peru,  breaking  out  in  angry  flames  in 
Arequipa,  from  the  towering  peaks  of  Mesta,  Chacarni, 
Pan  de  Azucar,  burying  the  cities  of  Arequipa  and 
Orite,  Tultapace  and  Ubinos,  in  burning  lava  and 
ashes,  in  the  sixteenth  century.  And  again,  at  Coto- 
paxi,  19,500  feet  above  the  sea,  boiling  over  and  for- 
cing its  fiery  way  out   of  a  height  of    »7,ooo  feet  at 


2^o  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

Sangaii.  still  in  Peru,  pouring  out  sulphurous  smoke, 
ashes,  cinders  and  lava,  the  flames  lighting  up  the 
country  around  for  one  hundred  and  fifty  years  past. 
Huo-mne  the  Pacific  shores,  alono-  into  Ecuador,  where 
the  o-reat  extinct  crater  of  Chimborazo  lies,  while  a 
branch  of  the  stream,  now  extinct,  makes  off  to  the  west 
some  six  hundred  miles  or  more,  and  burst  out  in  the 
Galapagos  Islands,  whose  numerous  extinct  craters, 
nearly  two  thousand  in  number,  give  evidence  of  a 
severe  eruption  in  past  ages. 

CENTRAL    AMERICA    AND    MEXICO. 

From  Ecuador,  the  current  flows  on  through  New 
Granada,  Guatemala,  Central  America  and  San  Salva- 
dor. The  current  through  these  latter  countries  seems 
to  be  in  a  quiescent  state,  as,  although  abundant  evi- 
dences of  its  eruptic  forces  can  be  traced  in  the  past, 
there  are  no  active  volcanoes  in  existence  in  those 
countries  at  the  present  time. 

Still  onward  pursuing  its  northerly  course,  to 
break  out  again  in  Mexico,  in  Anahuac  and  in  Michio- 
chan,  in  the  volcanoes  of  Tuxtla,  Orizaba,  Popocata- 
petl,  Isztachuatl,  Toluca, .  Jornillo,  and  in  Colima,  in 
Zapotai,  Tancitari  and  Soconusco.  These  are  nearly 
all  in  an  inactive  state  at  present,  if  we  except  a  little 
smoke  and  sulphurous  vapors  emitted  from  some  of 
the  craters. 

Tuxtla,  though  (in  the  State  of  Vera  Cruz),  emits 
a  (lame  day  and  night,  lighting  up  the  heavens  with  a 
glare  that  may  be  seen  far  away  at  sea. 

The  current  branches  here  again,  one  stream 
making  its  way  due  west,  under  the  sea,  for  over  2,500 
miles,  to  appear  again   in   those  majestic  volcanic  out- 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  251 

bursts  of  Kilauea  and   Mauna  Loa,  in  the  Sandwich 
Islands. 

PACIFIC    COAST. 

The  other  stream  pursues  a  peaceful  course  on 
through  North  America,  following  the  line  of  the  Pacific 
shore,  on  through  California,  Oregon,  Washington 
Territory^and  British  America,  into  Alaska.  Through 
these  countries,  the  flow  of  the  fiery  channel  below 
may  be  traced  by  the  evidences,  not  only  of  extinct 
volcanoes,  but  of  the  vast  overflow  of  lava  and  volcanic 
tufa,  to  be  found  all  along  the  route  named. 

Of  Mount  Hood,  Shasta,  Mount  St.  Helena,  and 
some  others  of  lesser  note,  there  is  little  to  be  said. 
Their  peaks,  rising  from  eleven  to  fourteen  thousand 
feet,  have  no  doubt  formed  vents  for  the  restless  fluid 
beneath.  The  geysers,  hot  springs  and  mud  ebulli- 
tions, found  all  along  the  Pacific  coast,  owe  their  exis- 
tence and  activity  to  the  yet  unsubdued  fires  of  the 
volcanic  belt. 

THROUGH    THE    ISLANDS. 

Breaking  out  again  at  Mount  St.  Elias,  in  Alaska, 
in  fitful  outbursts,  and  but  lately  on  one  of  the  islands 
of  the  Aleutian  chain,  we  see  the  mighty  forces  of  the 
fire-stream  still  at  work. 

Crossing  from  Alaska  to  Kamptchatka,  through 
the  Aleutian  Islands,  and  touching  the  southern  portion 
of  the  latter  country,  the  eruptic  current  turns  south- 
by-west,  and  flows  on  through  the  Kurile  Islands,  and 
through  the  main  groups  of  the  island  empire  of  Japan, 
whose  uneasy  foundations  are  truly  said  to  be  rocked 
in  the  cradle  of  the  deep. 


2^2  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

Still  onward,  pursuing  its  southerly  course,  through 
the  Phillipine  and  Mollucca  Islands,  often  shaking  them 
to  their  centers  with  its  angry  forces,  the  fire-stream 
makes  its  way,  touching  the  northwestern  portion  of 
Celebes  on  the  one  hand,  and  missing  its  great  island 
neighbor,  Borneo,  on  the  other;  it  bursts  forth  in  ter- 
rible  and  oft-recurring  eruptions  in  ill-fated  Java.  Here 
again  the  current  divides,  one  sweeping  to  the 
north  and  west,  through  Sumatra,  and  away* into  the 
Bay  of  Bengal ;  the  other  turns  at  a  point  further  north, 
from  the  Molluccas,  and  flows  east-by-south,  barely 
touching  New  Guinea,  through  New  Ireland  and  New 
Britain,  under  the  Solomon  Archipelago ;  then  again 
to  the  south  it  pursues  its  fiery  way,  through  the  New 
Hebrides,  into  New  Zealand  ;  while  another,  evidently 
smaller  stream,  branches  just  north  of  the  Hebrides, 
flowing  south-by-west,  touching  the  southeastern  coast 
of  Australia,  and  apparently  terminating  at  the  island 
group  of  Tasmania  or  Van  Diemen's  Land.  ^ 

As  far  as  known,  there  are  sixty-five  volcanoes  in 
Alaska,  ten  of  them  being  active,  with  one  or  two  more 
in  the  Aleutian  Isles.  In  the  New  Hebrides,  on  the 
island  of  Tanna,  a  volcanic  peak  still  forms  one  of  the 
beacon  lights  of  the  South  Sea,  to  be  rivaled  some- 
times by  its  fiery  neighbor,  Tongariro,  in  New  Zealand. 

THEORY    OF    VOLCANOES    AND    EARTHQUAKES. 

Many  theories  have  been  advanced  by  scientists, 
to  explain  earthquake  and  volcanic  action  ;  though  that 
advanced  by  Darwin,  from  observations  in  nearly  all 
parts  of  the  world,  is  generally  accepted.  It  is  believed 
that  the  crust  of  the  earth,  slowly  cooling  from  its  once 
liquid   mass,  has   now  formed  a  crust  of  from  ten  to 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  253 

twenty-five  miles  in  thickness,  and  still  holds  within  diis 
great  covering'  or  shell,  a  molten  mass  of  subterranean 
fires,  and  that  volcanic  outbursts  occur  only  within  cer- 
tain lines — probably  those  where  the  earth's  shell  is 
thinnest.  It  has  been  noted  that  the  eruptions  are 
more  frequent — in  fact,  take  place  altogether — where 
the  earth's  surface  is  raising,  being  pushed  up  by  the 
mighty  forces  within  its  shell.  Eruptions  never  occur 
in  lines  where  the  crust  is  sinking  or  undergoing  a 
depression,  on  account,  no  doubt,  of  its  immense 
weight,  thickness,  and  the  additional  strength  it  has 
acquired  from  cooling.  The  theory,  sometimes  ad- 
vanced, of  the  cracking  and  rending  of  the  cooling 
shell,  and  allowing  the  waters  of  the  seas  to  penetrate 
to  the  subterranean  fires,  with  the  consequent  eruptive 
forces  created  by  steam,  would  more  than  explain  the 
earthquake  phenomena.  That  the  earth's  shell  would 
close  again,  after  admitting  just  enough  water  to  give 
an  exhibition,  such  as  we  see  in  volcanic  outbursts,  is 
very  doubtful.  It  is  more  than  likely  that  the  two 
elements,  fire  and  water,  coming  together  in  the 
manner  d<pscribed,  would  rend  the  world  from  pole  to 
pole,  and  leave  us  little  but  the  theory  to  contemplate, 
if  that. 

The  cause  of  earthquakes  has  already  received 
considerable  attention,  particularly  those  continually 
occurring  all  over  the  world,  unaccompanied  by  volca- 
noes. Earthquakes  with  the  wave  motion,  attended 
by  an  indescribable  rumbling  roar,  are  judged  to  be 
the  offspring  of  restless  subterranean  fires  ;  while  oth- 
ers, with  the  quick-recurring,  nervous  shocks,  and  of 
which  California  furnishes  many  examples,  are  accoun- 
ted for  by  electrical  movements  taking  place  between 
the  great  elements,  earth,  air  and  water.    Again,  these 


254  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

apparent  electric  shocks  are  explained,  by  assuming 
the  crust  of  the  earth  to  be  opening  in  cracks  and  fis- 
sures, and  that  the  formations  are  slipping,  one  by  the 
other,  giving  such  a  motion  to  the  surface,  as  one  may 
experience  by  forcing  the  moistened  finger  over  a  sur- 
face of  glass. 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  255 


CHAPTER   XVII. 


COAOIBRCH,    AIVD    IPKXEROCBANIC    CAJiAX,S. 


A  storm-cloud,  lurid  with  lightning,  1 

And  a  cry  of  lamentation, 

Repeated  and  again  repeated, 

Deep  and  loud 

As  the  reverberation 

Of  cloud  answering  unto  cloud. 

Swells  and  rolls  away  in  the  distance, 

As  if  the  sheeted 

Lightning  retreated, 

Baffled  and  thwarted  by  the  winds'  resistance. 

Longfellow  (C7zm/«^). 

SEVERTING  again  to  the  commercial  interests 
locked  up  in  a  great  portion  of  the  island  world, 
and  which  but  awaits  the  key  of  American  energy 
and  enterprise  to  open  and  develop,  the  reader  may 
find  the  following  chapter  entertaining,  by  taking  a 
general  glance  with  me  at  some  of  the  interests  likely 
to  affect  the  commerce  and  industries  of  America. 

Professor  Hanks  says :  As  the  domestic,  and 
the  other  material  interests  of  California,  have  pros- 
pered and  expanded,  so  also  has  the  commerce 
of  the  country  grown  into  large  proportions.  With 
an  import  trade  second  only  to  that  of  New  York, 
San  Francisco  has  such  virgin  fields  to  occupy,  as  open 
not  to  her  great   eastern  rival.     To  her  the  trade  of 


2s6  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

Australia  and  the  Orient,  including-  Eastern  Siberia 
and  the  islands  of  the  Pacific,  geographically  as  well 
as  commercially,  belongs ;  time,  freights,  interest  and 
insurance  all  being  in  her  favor,  as  against  every  other 
port  in  the  world. 

Although  the  trade  of  San  Francisco,  which  may 
be  said  to  represent  largely  that  of  the  State,  has  suf- 
fered in  some  of  its  departments,  through  the  construc- 
tion of  two  additional  transcontinental  railroads — the 
one  to  the  north,  and  the  other  to  the  south,  of  the 
more  central  route — it  still  continues  larofe.  and  has 
even  increased  in  the  aggregate,  since  the  completion 
of  these  lateral  lines,  indicating  that  this  trade  is  not 
likely  to  be  seriously  crippled  by  this  or  other  inter- 
fering causes. 

The  value  of  the  merchandise  and  treasure  shipped 
from  San  Francisco  in  1883,  amounted  to  ^105,000,000, 
of  which  ^46,000,000  were  consigned  to  foreign  coun- 
tries. Of  these  exports,  $60,000,000  went  hy  sea,  and 
$45,000,000  by  rail.  The  imports  from  foreign  countries 
amounted,  meantime,  to  $40,000,000;  the  following 
staples,  among  other  leading  articles,  having  been 
imported  in  the  amounts  here  mentioned :  Sugar. 
1 33.9 14. 1 54  pounds;  rice,  58,315,750  pounds;  tea, 
20,960,248  pounds;  and  coffee,  17,444,777  pounds. 
The  receipts  of  lumber  at  this  port  amounted,  for  the 
year,  to  276,772,469  feet,  valued  at  $5,000,000;  re- 
ceipts of  Federal  revenue,  $12,558,305. 

The  innumerable  plants  and  trees  in  the  Pacific, 
whose  bark,  pith  and  fiber,  now  worked  in  a  crude 
way  among  the  natives,  into  paper,  cloth  and  fibrous 
manufactures,  could  be  built  up  into  a  large  profita- 
ble trade  under  more  civilized  rule.  The  pulp  could 
Ik;    pressed,    dried,    and    shipped,    say    to    San  Fran- 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  257 

cisco,  where  a  paper,  rivaling  the  celebrated  linen 
products  of  that  article,  manufactured  in  Europe,  could 
easily  be  produced. 

The  black  walnut,  Spanish  cedar,  toa,  tomano  and 
prima  vera,  the  rosewood,  dye-woods  and  mahogany, 
growing  so  profusely  in  the  island  world,  the  satin,  sandal 
and  camphor  trees,  back  up  the  assertion  that  im- 
mense commercial  transactions  with  the  Pacific  Islands 
are  in  the  near  future. 

The  cordage  interests  might  be  developed  in 
much  the  same  way,  by  importing  the  many  forms  of 
the  raw  material,  which  nature  produces  in  the  Pa- 
cific Islands,  and  manufacturing  them  into  the  various 
articles  required  in  our  advanced  civiHzation.  As  the 
reader  is  already  familiar  with  many  of  the  natural 
and  cultivated  products  of  the  island  world,  a  repeti- 
tion here  would  prove  uninteresting.  The  return 
trade  of  America  with  the  islands  is  growing  rapidly 
from  year  to  year.  Our  breadstuffs,  dry  goods,  canned 
goods,  clothing,  hardware,  machinery,  lumber,  etc., 
now  forming  a  considerable  part  of  the  shipping  Usts 
of  commodities  being  forwarded  to  the  Pacific  Islands, 
are  growing  in  quantity  and  value  from  year  to  year. 

So  vast  and  valuable  are  the  commercial  interests 
of  the  islands  of  the  Pacific,  that  estimated  on  the 
actual  product  of  the  Hawaiian  group  alone,  and  this 
on  their  exports  only,  and  that  to  one  port,  San  Fran- 
cisco, that  any  estimate  on  the  commercial  possibilities 
of  the  future,  would  but  excite  the  doubt  and  ridicule 
of  the  skeptical  reader, 

In  round  numbers,  the  export  of  the  above  islands 
to  the  port  named,  is  say,  100,000  tons  per  annum. 
In  comparison  with  the  area  of  the  available  lands  lo- 
cated in  the  Pacific,  the  above  group  would  constitute 


2s8  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

but  the  760th  part;  or  the  whole,  would  export  some 
76,000,000  tons  per  year  to  San  Francisco  alone.  To 
transport  this  tonnage,  15,200  1,000-ton  steam  or 
sailing  vessels  would  be  required,  making  five  round 
trips  per  year.  Assuming  that  San  Francisco  is  but 
a  distributing  point,  and  that,  too,  by  rail,  it  would 
require  13,800  freight  trains,  carrying  net  300  tons 
per  train,  or  690  trains  per  day,  or  a  train  would  have 
to  leave  our  city  about  every  two  minutes,  day  and 
night.  Allowing  that  the  trains  would  require  twenty 
days  to  make  the  round  trip,  the  above  number,  13,800, 
would  be  required. 

If  we  take  but  twenty  per  cent,  of  the  above,  we 
would  yet  have  a  practical  trade  so  vast  that  a  city  of 
a  million  or  more  inhabitants  would  naturally  be  re- 
quired to  take  care  of  it. 

Assuming  again  that  the  value  of  the  exports  of 
San  Francisco  to  the  Hawaiian  group  would  compare 
as  favorably  with  all  other  portions  of  the  island  world 
of  the  Pacific,  the  value  would  be  something  like 
^2,432,000,000  per  annum,  over  three  times  the  value 
of  the  annual  exports  of  the  United  States. 

PANAMA    CANAL. 

The  proposition  to  connect  the  Atlantic  and  Pa- 
cific Oceans  by  means  of  a  canal,  the  work  on  which 
is  now  under,  it  is  to  be  hoped,  successful  progress  at 
Panama,  will  add  greatly  to  the  world's  interest  in  the 
Pacific  Islands.  Of  the  many  projects  to  connect  the 
two  oceans,  if  we  add  Captain  Ead's  ship  railway,  and 
similar  schemes,  the  canal  at  Panama  is  about  the 
fifty-fourth.  The  subjoined  memorandum  statement 
of  the    three   most   prominent  undertakings,  and  for 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  259 

which  I  am  indebted  to  the  valuable  writing's  of  Cap- 
tain \V.  L.  Merry,  gives  a  comparative  idea,  not  only 
of  their  magnitude,  but  of  the  practical  results,  that 
will  be  derived  after  the  completion  of  either  of  the 
proposed  routes. 

MEMORANDUM    OF    PANAMA  -CANAL. 

Length  of  Panama  railroad,  47.5  miles;  length 
of  United  States  Panama  lock  canal,  41.7  miles;  en- 
gineer's estimate  of  cost  of  United  States  lock  canal, 
including  20  per  cent,  contingency,  $94,511,360;  en- 
gineer's estimate  of  French  sea  level  canal,  including 
10  per  cent,  contingency,  $168,000,000. 

Mercantile  estimate  of  probable  cost  of  French 
low  tide  level  canal,  San  Francisco  Board  of  Trade, 
$300,000,000. 

Summit  level  of  Panama  canal  survey,  295.7 
feet;  engineer's  estimate  of  time  for  construction,  8 
years. 

To  judge  of  the  character  of  this  work,  the  fol- 
lowing estimate  from  the  French  survey  is  given  here- 
with : 

Length  of  dam,  5,000  feet;  height  above  bed  of 
the  Chagres,  130  feet;  height  above  canal  level,  172 
feet;  height  above  canal  bottom,  199  feet;  estimated 
cost,  10  per  cent,  contingency,  $20,000,000. 

It  will  be  noted  that  the  bottom  of  the  canal  passes 
in  fro7it  of  the  dam,  seventy  feet  below  the  river  bed, 
and  that  the  Chagres  River  is  wiped  out  of  existence 
between  the  canal  and  the  Atlantic.  When  the  enor- 
mous rainfall,  the  violent  freshets,  and  the  large  amount 
of  sediment  and  floatage,  brought  down  by  floods,  are 
considered,  one   begins  to  realize  the  enormous  diffi- 


26o  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

culties  of  the  project,  the  doubtful  results  of  the  at- 
tempt, and  the  impossibility  of  estimating  additional 
cost,  which  may  be  caused  by  contingencies  liable  to 
occur.  Presuming  its  completion,  will  this  dam  not  be 
a  standing  menace  to  the  canal,  passing  in  modest 
silence  two  hundred  feet  below  its  top?  What  will  be 
the  result  of  a  moderate  earthquake  shock,  or  of  seep- 
age during  the  rainy  season  ?  Thus  obliterating  the 
Chagres,  the  canal  passes  on  into  the  Culebra  division, 
cuttingr  throuo-h  an  elevation  a  few  inches  less  than 
three  hundred  feet — of  course,  with  an  immensely 
increased  excavation,  as  compared  with  the  United 
States  survey,  but  encountering  otherwise  no  formida- 
ble engineering  obstacles — and  finally  reaching  the 
Pacific  through  the  valley  of  the  little  Rio  Grande, 
about  six  miles  west  of  the  city  of  Panama,  and  there 
meeting  deep  water  about  four  miles  outside  the  high- 
water  mark.  The  mean  sea-level  of  both  oceans  is 
now  known  to  be  the  same ;  but,  while  af  Aspinwall 
the  tide  ebbs  and  flows  from  one  and  a  half  to  two  feet, 
at  Panama  the  tidal  movement  is  eighteen  to  twenty- 
six  feet. 

The  American,  as  well  as  the  French  survey,  over- 
come the  difficulty  by  placing  a  tidal  lock  at  the  Pacific 
end  of  the  canal,  which  completely  controls  the  ques- 
tion. Such  is  the  French  survey  for  a  sea-level  Pan- 
ama canal. 

NICARAGUA    CANAL 

Of  the  route  of  the  Nicaragua  canal,  the  following 
mernorandum  will  serve  for  a  brief  explanation : 

Total  length  of  interoceanic  navigation,  173.57 
miles;  canal  from  San  Juan  del  Norte  to  San  Car- 
los dam,   35.90  miles ;    slack  water    navigation   from 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  261 

San  Carlos  dam  to  lake  junction,  63.90  miles;  lake 
navigation  from  lake  junction  to  lake  end  of  Pacific 
division  of  canal,  56.50  miles:  extreme  summit  level 
between  Pacific  and  Atlantic  Oceans,  150  feet;  total 
length  of  canal  to  be  constructed,  53.15  miles;  en- 
gineer's estimate  of  cost,  ^52,577,718;  engineer's 
estimate  of  time  for  construction,  five  years. 

Mercantile  estimate  of  possible  cost  by  San  Fran- 
cisco Board  of  Trade,  ^100,000,000. 

Surface  of  Lake  Nicaragua  is  107  feet  10  inches 
above  sea  level.  The  Lake  is  no  miles  lone  and 
about  35  miles  wide,  with  average  depth  of  water  of 
9  to  15  fathoms. 

The  Pacific  division  of  the  canal  is  171^  miles 
long,  from  Lajas  on  the  lake  to  the  Pacific  seaport  of 
Brito. 

THE    EADS    TEHUANTEPEC    SHIP    RAH.WAY. 

The  survey  for  this  interoceanic  project  has  not 
been  made,  and  it  is  accordingly  impossible  to  give  an 
accurate  description  of  the  line,  or  its  exact  length. 
The  Tehuantepec  Isthmus  United  States  canal  survey 
Is  144  miles  long,  to  which  is  to  be  added  about  2^ 
miles  of  river  navigation,  making  a  total  of  172  miles; 
and  former  surveys  for  railway  and  canal  service,  have 
found  the  lowest  practicable  summit  at  754  feet.  The 
canal  project  for  this  route  was  abandoned,  because  of 
the  high  summit,  necessitating  a  large  number  of  locks, 
with  a  scant  water  supply,  while  a  tide-level  canal  is 
impossible  at  any  admissible  cost.  For  a  ship  railway, 
it  offers  advantages  over  any  American  isthmus,  and 
an  ordinary  railway  is  now  being  constructed  there  by 
an  American  company.  The  Coatzacoalcos  River  is  a 
stream    of   respectable   magnitude,  running  northerly 


262  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

across  the  northern  slope  of  the  isthmus,  with  twelve 
to  thirteen  feet  of  water  on  its  bar,  which  it  is  proposed 
to  deepen  sufficiently  to  admit  the  largest  ships,  which 
can  ascend  the  river  about  twenty-five  miles — how  far, 
before  arriving  at  the  Atlantic  end  of  the  proposed 
railway,  I  presume  Mr.  Eads  himself  has  not  decided. 
There  are  no  formidable  obstacles  in  the  way  of  build- 
ing an  ordinary  railroad  across  the  isthmus,  beyond  the 
heavy  cuts  and  fills  usually  found  in  a  country  of  that 
character ;  and  the  railroad  finds  its  Pacific  terminus  at 
Salina  Cruz,  near  Ventosa,  at  the  head  of  the  Gulf  of 
Tehuantepec,  where  a  port  must  be  constructed. 
Probably  Captain  Eads  can  improve  the  Coatzacoalcos 
River  for  heavy  navigation,  25  to  28  miles,  and  his 
railroad  will  be  about  123  miles  long.  He  estimates 
the  cost  at  $75,000,000.  It  has  been  my  purpose  to 
avoid  a  discussion  of  the  merits  of  the  three  routes 
here  described,  but  it  will  be  impossible  to  do  so  in  the 
case  of  this  project,  if  the  reader  is  to  acquirfe  an  intel- 
ligent idea  of  it.  My  high  respect  for  the  ability  of 
Captain  Eads,  my  esteem  for  him,  founded  on  a  slight 
personal  acquaintance,  and  the  fact  that  I  can  lay  claim 
to  no  technical  knowledge  of  civil  engineering,  are 
good  reasons  for  approaching  this  subject  with 
deference,  and  I  must  regard  myself  as  merely  a  stu- 
dent of  the  project. 

Captain  Eads  takes  the  ship  out  of  water  by  a 
submerged  inclined  track,  on  which  the  cradle  is  run 
deep  enough  to  allow  the  ship  to  be  placed  upon  it, 
properly  lined  and  blocked,  after  which  a  stationary 
engine  hauls  cradle  and  ship  out  of  water  to  the  rail- 
road proper,  where  four  "Mogul"  locomotives  are 
placed  ahead  of  it,  on  a  twelve-rail  track,  which  haul 
ship  and  cradle   to  the  other  end  of  the  track,  where. 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  263 

by  a  reverse  process,  the  ship  is  again  placed  in  the 
water.  Of  course,  there  must  be  a  cradle  in  use  for 
each  ship  being-  transported  simultaneously.  The 
grades  are  overcome  by  tipping-tables,  and  the  curves 
by  turn-tables — as  can  readily  be  imagined,  of  gigantic 
size.  How  many  of  these  he  will  need,  cannot  be 
known  until  surveys  are  completed;  but  I  fear  the 
Tehuantepec  Isthmus  will  give  him  many  grades  and 
curves.  He  at  first  estimated  the  cost  of  such  a  railway 
at  half  the  cost  of  a  ship  canal,  but  his  present  idea  is» 
that  it  will  cost  ^75,000,000,  which  at  once  detracts 
from  his  scheme  the  principal  merit  heretofore  claimed 
for  it,  which  was  comparatively  small  cost ;  for  there  is 
every  prospect  that  the  Nicaragua  Canal  can  be  con- 
structed for  a  like  amount;  and,  while  the  depreciation 
and  wear  and  tear  of  his  railway,  subjected  to  the 
action  of  a  tropical  climate,  will  necessarily  be  great, 
a  ship  canal  improves  with  age — considerations  of  no 
little  importance. 

That  Captain  Eads  can  construct  a  ship  railway 
across  Tehuantepec,  there  is  little  doubt;  that  he  can 
so  construct  it,  as  to  meet  all  the  requirements  of  the 
case,  is  another  consideration.  His  mechanical  appli- 
ances for  overcoming  the  objections  I  was  able  to  point 
out  to  him,  appeared  complicated,  while  the  engineer- 
ing obstacles  of  curves,  grades,  etc.,  his  intimate  know- 
ledge of  his  profession  had  already  indicated  methods 
placing  them  under  his  control.  He  was  willing  to 
handle  a  loaded  ship  as  carefully  as  I  demanded,  while 
it  was  my  object,  not  to  allow  previous  prejudices  to 
affect  my  judgment  of  the  merits  of  the  scheme.  In 
one  respect,  however,  I  fear,  he  has  underrated  the 
difficulty  of  his  project.  I  doubt  if,  at  Tehuantepec,  or 
on    any   tropical    American    isthmus,    he    can    find   a 


264.  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

foundation  for  such  a  road  as  he  wishes  to  build.  The 
"cuts"  may  support  it,  but  the  "fills"  may  fail  to  do  so. 
The  success  of  the  scheme  depends  on  extreme  rigid- 
ity of  road  and  cradle,  and  if,  in  tropical  countries, 
foundations  are  always  troubling  railroad  engineers 
under  ordinary  tracks,  what  are  we  to  expect,  under  a 
weight  of  fifteen  or  twenty  thousand  tons,  concentra- 
ted within  the  limits  of  the  cradle  carrying  the  loaded 
ship?  Captain  Eads  is  one  of  the  greatest  living  engi- 
neers, and  if  capitalists  will  furnish  funds,  he  may  build 
his  railway ;  but,  unless  it  is  cheaper  than  a  canal, 
what  advantage  does  it  offer?  Why  try  an  experiment, 
when  a  certainty  offers  the  same  results  ?  However, 
in  the  absence  of  a  survey  with  instruments  of  preci- 
sion, it  is  probably  unfair  to  discuss  the  project  at  all, 
and  I  dismiss  it,  with  great  respect  for  the  ability  and 
resources  of  the  illustrious  projector. 

COMMERCIAL    RESULTS    ANTICIPATED. 

That  an  American  interoceanic  canal  will  effect 
^reat  chanofes  in  the  world's  commerce,  none  can 
doubt ;  but  what  little  I  shall  have  to  say  on  this 
branch  of  the  subject,  will  refer  to  the  effect  it  will 
have  upon  American  commercial  interests  generally, 
and  especially  upon  the  interests  of  the  Pacific  coast 
of  our  country — commercial,  agricultural  and  social. 
A  project  which  brings  this  coast  nearly  nine  thousand 
miles  nearer  our  Atlantic  sea-board,  and  the  great 
marts  of  Europe,  cannot  fail  to  work  great  changes  in 
our  commercial  position.  The  inhabitants  of  the  Pacific 
coast  must,  for  a  long  period,  continue  rather  a  pro- 
ducing, than  a  manufacturing  people ;  and  what  manu- 
facturing we  are  able  to  accomplish,  will   be  from   our 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  265 

own  products.  The  saving  in  time,  insurance,  depre- 
ciation and  freights,  applicable  to  Oregon  and  Califor- 
nia, alone,  will  amount  in  ten  years  to  the  cost  of  the 
Nicaragua  Canal.  The  saving  above  named,  applied 
to  this  year's  Oregon  and  California  wheat  crop,  can 
be  placed,  with  sober  truth,  at  fully  eight  million  dol- 
lars !  When  our  wool,  wine,  and  other  growing  indus- 
tries are  considered,  it  will  easily  be  seen,  that  the 
producers  of  our  coast  should  strain  every  nerve  to 
insure  the  success  of  an  interoceanic  canal. 

Nor,  as  might  at  first  sight  appear,  will  the  canal 
injure  our  local  railroads.  While  it  would  undoubt- 
edly at  first  deprive  them  of  the  through  freights,  or 
force  upon  them  a  reduction  which  would  be  a  great 
benefit  to  our  State,  in  a  short  time  after  its  comple- 
tion their  local  traffic  would  surpass  all  the  through  traffic 
they  can  hope  to  control,  and,  with  our  other  inter- 
ests, they  can  reap  the  benefitof  our  rapidly  increasing 
development,  carrying  all  the  products  of  our  soil  to 
tide-water,  and  securing  a  greatly  increased  passen- 
ger trafiic.  Meanwhile  they  have  probably  six  years 
during  the  period  of  construction  to  accommodate 
themselves  to  the  change. 

The  completion  of  the  canal  will  make  San  Fran- 
cisco the  distributing  point  for  the  products  of  China, 
Japan  and  Central  America,  as  far  east  as  the  Mis- 
souri, for  it  will  then  be  to  the  interest  of  our  railroads 
to  secure  this  distribution  rather  than  allow  it  to  be 
made  westward  from  Atlantic  seaboard  cities  after 
reaching  them  through  the  canal.  A  rapid  develop- 
ment of  the  Central  American  States  and  west  Mexi- 
can coast  would  ensue,  and  those  markets  would  in- 
crease their  demand  upon  us  for  the  commodities  we 
are  already  sending  there  in  limited  quantity.     Our 


266  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

merchant  steam  marine  would  rapidly  increase,  for 
the  commerce  between  our  eastern  seaboard  and  our 
west  coast  being  coastwise,  and  shut  out  from  Euro- 
pean competition,  we  should  need  a  large  steam  ton- 
nage under  American  colors  to  carry  our  freights 
eastward,  while  they  would  also  compete  with  foreign 
steamers  for  European  freights.  It  will  be  a  glorious 
day  for  our  State  when  San  Francisco  wharves  will  be 
crowded  with  four  and  five  thousand  ton  screw  steam- 
ers flying  our  flag  and  loading  with  our  products,  and 
with  the  completion  of  the  canal  this  day  will  surely 
come.  Cheap  communication  with  Europe  will  bring 
to  us  desirable  European  immigration  to  settle  up  our 
lands  and  displace  the  unassimulative  Chinese  who 
are  trying  to  crowd  in  upon  us.  Shall  we  not  tend 
to  keep  them  out  by  filling  the  places  they  would 
occupy  with  a  class  of  immigrants  that  can  be  Ameri- 
canized? An  intelligent  mind  investigating  this  sub- 
ject finds  the  grand  results  unfolding  themselves  until 
an  interoceanic  canal  appears  the  greatest  boon  our 
coast  can  ask  for,  and  to  the  names  that  are  associated 
therewith,  their  country  and  the  world  will  accord  un- 
dying luster. 

POLITICAL  CONSIDERATIONS  OF   THE    CANAL    QUESTION. 

Primarily,  it  would  appear  that  it  matters  little 
who  constructs  a  canal  if  our  country  is  accorded  the 
unrestricted  use  of  it,  in  common  with  other  nations. 
A  further  inquiry,  however,  must  satisfy  us  that  if  we 
do  not  build  this  work  we  must  acquire  a  controlling 
interest  therein.  We  cannot  afford  so  important  a 
link  in  our  coastwise  communication  to  remain  in  the 
hands    of   any   European   organization,   which  would 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  26 j 

naturally  consult  foreign  interests  rather  than  our 
own.  The  Central  American  republics  are  now  friendly 
to  us,  although  sparsely  inhabited  and  without  devel- 
opment. The  company  constructing  and  managing 
an  interoceanic  canal  would  soon  wield  an  influence 
paramount  to  the  local  government,  and  the  policy  of 
the  latter  might  become  subservient  thereto  and  in- 
imical to  us. 

Durine  the  existence  of  the  Panama  railroad  it 
has  been  deemed  a  necessity  for  our  government  to 
keep  armed  forces  almost  constantly  at  both  ends  of 
the  transit,  and  these  forces  have  often  been  landed 
and  kept  ashore  indefinitely  for  the  protection  of  life 
and  property.  If  this  has  been  the  case  with  a  rail- 
road managed  by  permanent  employees  and  with  a 
small  native  population,  what  may  we  expect  when 
five  to  ten  thousand  laborers  of  various  nationalities 
are  congregated  there,  subject  to  a  lax  police  control, 
suffering  from  malarial  fevers,  discontented,  mutinous, 
and  with  a  free  supply  of  aguardiente?  Add  thereto 
a  greatly  increased  native  population,  and  we  have 
all  the  elements  needing  military  power  to  control 
them  in  emersfencies. 

When  Count  de  Lessep's  company  have  pur- 
chased the  Panama  railroad,  which  they  have  agreed 
to  do  as  a  preliminary  step,  we  no  longer  have  large 
American  interests  to  protect  there.  It  will  be  nat- 
ural, and  indeed  necessar}',  for  him  to  call  upon  the 
French  Government  to  protect  the  enterprise,  as  we 
have  protected  the  railroad  company  on  many  occa- 
sions. The  French  Government,  both  during  and 
after  construction,  will  find  it  necessary  to  station 
armed  forces  at  both  ends  and  on  the  line  of  the 
canal.     After  landing  these  forces  a  few  times,  what 


268  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

more  natural  than  that  they  should  see  the  advan- 
tage and  economy  of  having  these  troops  in  barracks 
on  shore — always  within  call?  If  it  is  claimed  that 
the  French  Government  accepts  no  responsibility  in 
this  connection,  why  has  it  already  appointed  an 
official  aeent  to  oversee  the  initiation  of  the  work? 
If,  at  the  end  of  our  late  internal  war,  our  Govern- 
ment deemed  it  necessary  to  request  the  French  to 
promptly  leave  Mexico — merely  contiguous  terri- 
tory— how  much  more  important  that  they  should 
not  be  placed  in  a  position  completely  controlling  our 
coastwise  commerce,  and  establishing,  first,  their  influ- 
ence, then  their  power,  and  lastly,  if  we  are  quiescent, 
their  flae  on  the  American  Isthmus  !  Are  the  Ameri- 
can  people  prepared  for  this?  The  late  William  H. 
Seward,  than  whom  no  brighter  intellect  ever  graced 
American  history,  was  wont  to  say  that  the  Pacific 
Ocean  is  to  be  the  scene  of  man's  greatest  achieve- 
ments. Are  we  prepared  to  have  the  key  thereto  in 
foreign  hands  ?  Every  American  heart  will  say  nay, 
and  honor  the  patriotism  of  President  Hayes  and 
General  Grant  when  they  foresee  these  results  and 
point  them  out  to  their  countrymen. 

Nor  is  a  large  army  and  navy  a  necessity  in  the 
maintenance  of  the  Monroe  doctrine ;  on  the  con- 
trary, both  would  beco7ne  a  necessity  were  it  to  be  dis- 
regarded. The  United  States  have  a  moral  prestige 
sufficient  to  create  a  respect  for  our  rights  and  in- 
terests, and  it  is  far  better  to  meet  attempted  Euro- 
pean domination  on  this  continent,  with  a  decisive 
negative  now,  than  to  object  thereto  after  it  has  passed 
the  initiative.  It  matters  little  where  the  capital  comes 
Irom  to  construct  an  interoceanic  canal,  but  a  due 
respect  for  our  national  and  traditional  policy,  as  well 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  269 

as  for  our  national  pride,  should  indicate  the  propriety 
of  its  accomplishment  through  an  American  organiza- 
tion ;  and  it  is  a  poor  compliment  to  our  discernment 
that  we  are  to  be  kept  quiescent  by  an  ''American 
Branchy  which  can  any  day  be  voted  out  of  exist- 
ence at  the  headquarters  of  the  Panama  Canal  Com- 
pany in  Paris  !  Americans  will  not. fail  to  appreciate  the 
words  of  one  who  has  proved  himself  worthy  of  their 
patriotic  regard:  "I  commend  an  American  canal,  on 
American  soil,  to  the  American  people ! " 


njo  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 


C1JRRHP9XS,  V^i:SDS,    RAIXS   AJKD    STORMS 
OK   THE   PACIFIC. 


Bursts  as  a  wave  that  from  the  clouds  impends, 
And  swell'd  with  tempests  on  the  ship  descends ; 
White  are  the  decks  with  foam ;  the  winds  aloud 
Howl  o'er  the  masts,  and  sing  through  every  shrouds 
Pale,  trembling,  tired,  the  sailors  freeze  with  fears 
And  instant  death  on  every  wave  appears. 

Pope's  {Homer's  Iliad.) 

I  DO  not  design,  in  this  chapter,  to  more  than 
glance,  with  the  reader,  at  the  broad  expanse  of 
waters,  the  majestic  Pacific  Ocean,  and,  in  a  general 
way,  view  its  rains,  storms  and  currents.  Many  men, . 
wise  in  experience  and  intellectual  acquirements,  have 
already  given  these  interesting  subjects  their  careful 
attention ;  our  hydrographic  offices,  and  the  shelves  of 
our  more  advanced  libraries,  teem  with  the  rich  results 
of  intellect  and  experience.  The  general  flow  of  the 
great  currents,  with  the  rise  and  fall  of  the  tides,  and 
the  natural  laws  controlling  the  winds  and  storms,  on 
the  great  waste  of  waters  of  the  mighty  sea,  are  clearly 
depicted  on  charts,  while  elaborate  data  fill  our  nauti- 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  '         271 

cal  almanacs,   sailing  directions,  and   kindred  works. 
Yet   so   vast   is   the  Pacific,  that    local    influences  are 
occurring  in  many  forms,  and  in  many  places,  and  all 
acting  without  one  influencing  the  other.     Thus,  if  we 
could  be  transported,  as  fast  as  the  mind  can  travel, 
from  the  Arctic   to  the  Antarctic  Oceans,  or  from  the 
Bay  of  Panama  to  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  or  circle  among 
the   intermediate  latitudes   or  longitudes,  all  the  cli- 
mates of  the  world  would   be  experienced,  with  their 
varied  physical  influences,  taking  place  at  hundreds  of 
different  localities,  at  about  the  same  period  of  time. 
So    that  none    but   the   grander  movements,  like  the 
."Black   Stream"  in  the  North,  and  the  Peruvian  cur- 
rent in  the  South  Pacific,  and  the  main  movements  of 
the   equatorial  currents,  flowing  both  east  and  west, 
with   the  ceaseless  ebb  and  flow  of  the  tides,  are  all 
that  can  be  contemplated  with  anything  like  certainty. 
Maury,  in  his  "Physical  Geography  of  the  Sea,"  gives 
many  examples   of  the   variability  of  ocean  currents. 
He  says,  speaking  of  the  Pacific: 

There  are  also,  about  the  equator,  in  this  ocean, 
some  curious  currents,  which  I  have  called  the  "Dol- 
drum  currents"  of  the  Pacific,  but  which  I  do  not  under- 
stand, and  as  to  which,  observations  are  not  sufficient 
yet,  to  afford  the  proper  explanation  or  description. 
There  are  many  of  them,  some  of  which,  at  times,  run 
with  great  force.  On  a  voyage  from  the  Society  to 
the  Sandwich  Islands,  I  encountered  one  running  at  the 
rate  of  ninety-six  miles  a  day.  These  currents  are 
generally  found  setting  to  the  west.  They  are  often, 
but  not  always,  encountered  in  the  equatorial  doldrums 
on  the  voyage  between  the  Society  and  the  Sandwich 
Islands. 

In  Captain  Pichou's    abstract   log  of  the  French 


272  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

corvette  L Eur y dice,  from  Honolulu  to  Tahiti,  in  Au- 
g-ust,  1857,  a  doldrum  current  is  recorded  at  seventy- 
nine  miles  a  day,  west-by-north.  He  encountered  it 
between  i  deg.  north  and  4  deg.  south,  where  it  was 
three  hundred  miles  broad.  On  the  voyage  to  Hono- 
lulu, in  July  of  the  same  year,  he  experienced  no  such 
current,  but  in  6  deg.  north,  he  encountered  one  of 
thirty-six  miles,  setting  southeast,  or  nearly  in  the 
opposite  direction.  This  current  does  not  appear  to 
have  been  more  than  sixty  miles  broad.  Many  instan- 
ces of  this  kind  might  be  cited,  of  local  currents,  of  the 
southern  flow  of  a  stream  along  the  coasts  of  China, 
and  on  into  the  Indian  Ocean,  while  outside  of  the 
myriads  of  islands,  the  Japanese  Black  Stream  is 
moving  in  majestic  circles,  and  in  a  contrary  direction. 

In  another  part  of  this  work,  I  have  cited  a  case 
of  the  drift  of  pumice  and  ashes,  easterly  from  Java  to 
Ponape,  flowing  just  between,  and  in  a  contrary  direc- 
tion to,  the  sweep  of  the  two  great  ocean  cujrrents,  the 
Black  Stream  of  the  North,  and  the  Peruvian  current 
of  the  South  Pacific. 

In  regard  to  this  floating  pumice,  a  late  authority, 
speaking  of  a  certain  formation  found  on  the  bed  of  the 
ocean,  states,  that  everything  seems  to  show  that  the 
formation  of  the  clay  is  due  to  the  decomposition  of 
fragmentary  volcanic  products,  whose  presence  can  be 
detected  over  the  whole  floor  of  the  ocean.  '='  '•'  * 
The  universal  distribution  of  pumice,  over  the  floor  of 
the  ocean,  is  very  remarkable,  and  would  at  first  appear 
unaccountable  ;  but  when  the  fact,  that  pieces  of  pum- 
ice have  been  known  to  float  in  sea  water  for  a  period 
of  over  three  years,  before  becoming  sufficiently  water- 
logged to  sink,  is  taken  into  consideration,  it  will  be 
readily   understood,    how   fraorments    of  this  material 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  273 

may  be  transported,  by  winds  and  currents,  to  an  enor- 
mous distance  from  their  point  of  origin,  before  being- 
deposited  upon  the  bottom. 

Among  the  islands  of  the  South  Sea,  the  channels, 
as  between  islands,  are  free  and  clear,  and  carry  deep, 
navigable  waters,  with  probably  few  sunken  rocks  to 
interfere  with  navigation.  The  currents  flow  through 
some  of  these  channels,  varying  with  the  localitie.s,  at 
the  rates  of  ten,  fifteen,  twenty-one  and  thirty  miles  a 
day.  For  this  reason,  it  is  deemed  best  to  lay  well  off 
from  shore,  when  not  in  a  good  harbor,  of  atoll  lagoon, 
or  bay.  Many  vessels  have  been  lost  in  the  sweep  of 
these  island  currents,  dragging  their  anchors  (where 
anchorage  can  be  had,  as  very  often  deep  water  makes 
up  to  almost  the  reef-line),  and  drifting  in  on  the 
breakers,  completely  at  the  mercy  of  the  waves.  This 
often  happens,  too,  m  perfectly  clear  weather,  when 
there  is  no  wind  to  aid  the  luckless  naviofatorin  "claw- 
ing  off  shore."  The  main  currents,  spoken  of,  have 
considerable  depth,  while  in  others  their  movements 
may  be  termed  surface,  and  sometimes  greatly  influ- 
enced by  winds  and  storms.  Others  may  be  termed 
deep  sea  currents,  whose  flow  traverses  the  depths 
below.  These  are  just  as  variable  as  the  surface  move- 
ments. Any  bulky  article,  like  a  keg,  weighted  to 
sink  to  the  depth  desired,  and  with  sounding-line  and 
buoy  attached,  may  sometimes  be  seen,  carrying-  the 
buoy  against  the  wind  and  surface  current,  at  the  rate 
of  two  miles  an  hour. 

It  will  be  readily  seen  that  the  course  and  speed 
of  surface  currents  can  be  traced  with  greater  facility 
than  those  flowing  deep  down  in  the  sea.  Although 
the  custom  is  not  general,  still  in  the  cause  of  sci- 
ence it  should  be  so,  that  in  all  sea  voyages,  buoys  or 


2^4  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

bottles,  with  complete  data  of  time  and  place,  should 
be  cast  adrift  at  least  once  a  week  during  the 
voyage. 

The  data  contained  in  bottle  or  buoy  should,  of 
course,  contain  the  request  to  note  time  and  place  when 
recovered  from  the  ocean.  If  this  were  a  general  prac- 
tice among  our  mariners,  the  little  messengers  would 
be  looked  for  with  special  interest.  The  valuable 
practical  data  coming  from  this  little  source  alone 
would  add  greatly  in  helping  to  perfect  current  charts 
of  the  different  oceans. 

In  view  of  the  varying  ocean  streams,  more  par- 
ticularly among  the  islands  of  the  South  Sea,  should 
development  and  commerce  go  hand  in  hand,  the  idea 
of  using  auxiliary  steam-power  on  all  vessels  en- 
gaged in  this  particular  trade,  should  meet  with  some 
encouragement  from  the  mercantile  world.  A  great 
deal  of  time  lost  in  the  calms  and  currents  of  these 
regions  might  be  saved,  as  well  as  certain-  protection 
from  storms  and  adverse  currents.  In  regions  where 
the  atolls  are,  only  those  experienced  in  navigating 
among  them,  can  judge  of  the  value  steam-power 
would  have,  if  only  applied  for  a  few  hours.  The 
lagoons  of  the  atolls  are  always  safe  harboring,  but 
how  to  reach  them  with  a  sailing-vessel  in  a  dead 
calm,  through  narrow  entrances,  and  with  storms  and 
currents  threatening,  with  the  sea  breaking  over  the 
coral  reefs  on  either  hand,  is  still  a  problem  for  the 
sailor.  The  same  difficulty,  if  we  leave  out  the  sud- 
den gale  and  currents,  presents  itself  in  getting  out. 
Even  if  the  auxiliary  were  not  made  a  part  of  the 
vessel,  still  a  steam-launch  of  considerable  capacity 
could  be  carried,  to  be  used  only  when  required. 
This,    I   am  sure,  would  obviate  many  of  the  difficul- 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  275 

ties  sailing-vessels  have  to .  encounter,  when  trading 
amongf  the  Pacific  Islands. 

The  influence  of  the  tides,  mainly  caused  by  the 
attractive  force  of  the  moon  and  the  centrifugal  force 
exercised  by  the  earth's  revolutions,  no  doubt  affect 
the  ocean  currents  considerably.  Their  rise  and 
fall,  ranging  in  some  places  from  but  a  few  inches 
to  seventy  feet,  raising  and  lowering  the  ocean  level 
alternately,  create  a  variable  system  of  currents  too 
well  understood  by  navigators  to  require  an  elaborate 
explanation  here.  If  we  admit,  for  example,  that 
while  we  have  a  high  tide  on  the  one  side  of  the 
earth,  caused  by  the  moon's  attraction,  and  that 
directly  opposite  on  the  other  side  of  the  globe  there 
is  a  high  tide,  the  effect  of  the  centrifugal  force  of  the 
earth's  revolutions,  with  the  consequent  depression  of 
the  water  levels  between  these  points,  we  have  a  sim- 
ple explanation  of  high  and  low  tides.  These  points 
are  continually  shifting,  moving  around  the  earth's 
watery  surface,  as  the  influences  causing  them  move, 
and  explain  in  a  general  way,  if  we  leave  out  local 
influences,  the  world's  tidal  system. 

The  influence  of  the  heat  emitted  from  the  great 
fire-belt  nearly  oudining  the  western  hemisphere  may 
have  had  considerable  influence  on  the  ocean  currents 
of  the  Pacific.  At  a  much  earlier  period  in  the  world's 
slow  geological  processes,  when  its  shell  was  many 
miles  thinner,  it  is  obvious  that  the  heat  from  subter- 
ranean fires  would  be  more  readily  imparted  to  the 
water,  causing  a  flow  of  the  colder  portions  towards 
the  points  where  it  had  been  expanded  or  driven 
away  by  the  heat  (much  as  we  see  the  movements  of 
the  mobile  element  when  heating  it  in  a  vessel  over  a 
fire).     The  impetus  given  in  this  manner  to  the  ocean's 


276  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

flow,  it  would  seem  but  naturaL  for  the  heat  of  the 
sun's  rays  together  with  the  prevaiUng  winds  and 
tides,  to  keep  it  in  constant  motion  and  agitation. 
Many  authorities  attribute  the  movement  of  ocean 
currents  altogether  to  the  influence  of  the  winds, 
whose  great  force  and  power  will  be  better  under- 
stood by  consulting  the  following  table,  compiled  from 
the  latest  observations  of  meteorologists : 

VELOCITY  AND  FORCE  OF  WIND. 

Miles  Feet  Pressure  on  a 

per  hour,      per  minute.  sq.  ft.  in  fts.  Description  of  wind. 

1 88 005 Barely  observable. 

^    ■       >■  Just  perceptible. 

3 264 045 ) 

4 352 .08  Light  breeze. 


5 440 -iss- 

6 528 .18  ^  Gentle,  pleasant  wind. 


I 


8 704 -32    • 

10 880 5     Fresh  breeze. 

15 1,320 I-I25 Brisk  blow. 

20 1,760 2 Stifif  breeze. 

25 2,200 3,125 Very  brisk. 

3° 2,640 4-5     !  High  wind. 

35 3,080 6.125 j 

40 3,520 8.       Very  high  wind- 

45 3, 960 10. 1 25 Gale. 

50 4,400 12.5     Storm. 

60 5,280 18.       Great  storm.     ' 

80 7,040, 32 Hurricane. 

100 8,8oo- 50.       Tornado. 

The  cause  of  prevailing  winds,  blowing  over  the 
surface  of  the  Pacific  and  other  oceans — the  "trades" 
— is  given  by  the  best  authorities,  as  naturally  following 
from  the  differences  occurrino-  between  what  is  termed 
the  regions  of  high  and  low  barometer.  This,  in  plainer 
terms,  and  those  that  may  be  understood  by  children, 
(if  my  little  work  should  be  honored  by  their  perusal). 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  277 

would  be  the  difference — in  the  pressure  or  weight 
of  the  atmosphere.  North  and  south  of  the  equator 
lie  the  regions  of  the  greatest  pressure  of  the  air,  and 
in  between  these,  there  is  a  broad  space,  following  the 
equatorial  line,  belting  the,  world.  This  is  the  region 
of  low  barometer,  or  where  generally  the  pressure  of 
the  air  is  llo-htest.  Towards  this  belt,  the  air  from  the 
north  and  south  flows,  as  naturally  as  a  greater  height 
or  level  of  water  would  run  towards  that  of  a  lower 
level.  On  the  Pacific  Ocean,  these  air  currents  come 
from  northeast  and  southeast,  curving  and  blowing 
west  near  the  equator,  forming  the  trade  winds.  Aris- 
totle, who  was  probably  the  first  to  predict  changes  in 
the  weather,  much  in  the  form  of  the  meteorological 
predictions  of  the  present  day,  must  have  had  some 
idea  of  atmospheric  pressure,  and  the  differences  oc- 
curring in  its  weight.  A  definite  explanation,  though, 
of  the  pressure  of  the  air,  was  not  had  until  1643,  when 
it  was  discovered  and  explained  by  Torricelli,  a  pupil 
of  Galileo.  The  theory  of  trade  winds  was  explained 
by  George  Hadley,  about  1735.  Humboldt's  Treatise 
on  Isothermal  Lines  was  not  published  until  181 7. 

MONSOONS. 

Maury  says  :  Monsoons  are,  for  the  most  part, 
trade  winds  deflected.  When,  at  stated  seasons  of  the 
year,  a  trade  wind  is  turned  out  of  its  regular  course, 
as  from  one  quadrant  to  another,  it  is  regarded  as  a 
monsoon.  The  African  monsoons  of  the  Atlantic,  the 
monsoons  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  the  Central 
American  monsoons  of  the  Pacific,  are,  for  the  most 
part,  formed  of  the  trade  winds,  which  are  turned  back 
or  deflected,  to  restore  the  equilibrium  which  the  over- 


27S  .THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

heated  plains  of  Africa,  Utah,  Texas  and  New  Mexico 
have  disturbed.  Thus,  with  regard  to  the  northeast 
and  southwest  monsoons  of  the  Indian  Ocean,  for  ex- 
ample— a  force  is  exerted  upon  the  northeast  trade 
winds  of  that  area,  by  the  disturbance  which  the  heat 
of  summer  creates  in  the  atmosphere  over  the  interior 
plains  of  Asia,  which  is  more  than  sufficient  to  neutra- 
lize the  forces  which  cause  those  winds  to  blow  as  trade 
winds';  it  arrests  them,  and  turns  them  back ;  but,  were 
it  not  for  the  peculiar  condition  of  the  lands  about  that 
ocean,  what  are  now  called  the  northeast  monsoons, 
would  blow  the  year  round  ;  there  would  be  no  south- 
west monsoons  there,  and  the  northeast  winds,  being 
perpetual,  would  become  all  the  year  what,  in  reality, 
for  several  months  they  are — viz.,  northeast  trade 
winds, 

EFFECT    OF    MONSOONS. 

Upon  India  and  its  seas,  the  monsoon  phenomena 
are  developed  on  the  grandest  scale.  They  blow  over 
all  that  expanse  of  northern  water,  that  lies  between 
Africa  and  the  Phillippine  Islands.  Throughout  this 
vast  expanse,  the  winds  that  are  known  as  the  north- 
east trades,  are  here  called  northeast  monsoons,  be- 
cause, instead  of  blowing  from  that  quarter  for  twelve 
months,  as  in  other  seas,  they  blow  only  for  six.  During 
the  remaining  six  months,  they  are  turned  back,  as  it 
were,  for  instead  of  blowing  toward  the  equator,  they 
blow  away  from  it,  and  instead  of  northeast  trades,  we 
have  southwest  monsoons. 

The  monsoon  is  an  innocent,  peaceable  breeze, 
and  in  no  way  related  to  the  typhoon,  that  terror  of  nav- 
igators, in  some  parts  of  the  Pacific.  In  fact,  as  Maury 
says,  in  his  Sailing  Directions,  it  is  a  curious  thing,  this 


OF   THE  PACIFIC   OCEAN         .  279 

influence  of  islands  in  the  trade  wind  region,  upon  the 
winds  of  the  Pacific.  Every  navigator  who  has  cruised 
in  those  parts  of  that  ocean,  has  often  turned,  with 
wonder  and  dehght,  to  admire  the  gorgeous  piles  of 
cumuli,  heaped  up  in  the  most  delicate  and  exquisitely 
beautiful  masses,  that  it  is  possible  for  fleecy  matter  to 
assume.  Not  only  are  these  cloud-piles  found  capping 
the  hills  among  the  islands,  but  they  are  often  seen  to 
overhang  the  lowest  isle  of  the  tropics,  and  to  even 
stand  above  coral  patches  and  hidden  reefs,  "a  cloud  by 
day,"  to  serve  as  a  beacon  to  the  lonely  mariner  out 
there  at  sea,  and  to  warn  him  of  shoals  and  dangers, 
which  no  lead  or  seaman's  eye  has  ever  seen  or  soun- 
ded out.  These  clouds,  under  favorable  circumstan- 
ces, may  be  seen  gathering  above  the  low  coral  island,, 
and  performing  their  office,  in  preparing  for  vegetation 
and  fruitfulness,  in  a  very  striking  manner.  As  they 
are  condensed  into  showers,  one  fancies  that  they  are 
a  sponge  of  the  most  delicately  elaborated  material, 
and  that  he  can  see,  as  they  "dropdown  their  fatness,'* 
the  invisible  but  bountiful  hand  aloft,  that  is  pressing 
it  out. 

TYPHOONS. 

Under  this  head,  for  brevity's  sake,  all  those  ter- 
rible phenomena,  known  as  hurricanes,  tornadoes  and 
cyclones,  generally  applied  to  storms  taking  place  over 
the  land,  might  be  included  the  disastrous  gales  of  the 
Pacific,  known  as  typhoons.  True,  the  ocean  was  well 
named  by  Magellan,  and  no  doubt  exhibits  less  stormy 
proclivities  than  any  of  the  mighty  wastes  of  water, 
nearly  covering  the  globe. 

Maury  admits  the  research  and  ability  of  Redfield 
in  America,  Reid  in  England,  Tom  of  Mauritius    and 


28o  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

Paddington  of  Calcutta,  in  explaining  typhoons,  stating 
the  theory  of  this  school:  That  these  are  rotary 
storms ;  that  they  revolve  against  the  hands  of  a 
watch  in  the  southern  hemisphere ;  that  nearer  the 
center  or  vortex  the  more  violent  the  storm,  while 
the  center  itself  is  a  calm,  which  travels  sometimes 
a  mile  or  two  an  hour,  and  sometimes  forty  or  fifty; 
that  in  the  center  the  barometer  is  low,  rising  as  you 
approach  the  periphery  of  the  whirl ;  that  the  diame- 
ter of  these  storms  is  sometimes  a  thousand  miles, 
and  sometimes  not  more  than  a  few  leagues ;  that 
they  have  their  origin  somewhere  between  the  par- 
allels of  lo  deg.  and  20  deg.  north  and  south,  travel- 
ing to  the  westward  in  either  hemisphere,  but  increas- 
ing their  distance  from  the  equator  until  they  reach 
the  parallels  of  25  deg.  or  30  deg.,  when  they  turn 
toward  the  east,  or  "recurvate,"  but  continue  to  in- 
crease their  distance  from  the  equator — that  is,  they 
first  travel  westwardly,  inclining  toward  the  nearest 
pole ;  they  then  recurve  and  travel  eastwardly,  still 
inclining  toward  the  pole ;  that  such  is  their  path  in 
both  hemispheres,  etc. 

THEIR    EXPLANATION. 

Maury  doubts  the  correctness  of  the  above  state- 
ments in  many  ways,  yet  does  not  prove  anything  to 
the  contrary.  Their  inception,  with  the  destructive 
forces  they  exercise  when  fully  imdcr  way,  seems  to 
be  derived  exactly  from  the  same  natural  laws  that 
create  the  trade  winds,  the  flow  of  the  heavier  air  to 
occupy  the  space  opened  up  by  the  lighter.  The 
more  rarified  atmosphere  may  come  from  the  influ- 
ence of  the  sun's  heat,  the  rapid  evaporation  of  water 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  281 

from  the  ocean's  surface,  or  from  the  rapid  condensa- 
tion of  aqueous  vapor  and  consequent  fall  of  rain, 
which  is  always  accompanied  by  rarlfication  and  lib- 
eration of  heat.  These  sudden  gyrating  storms,  of 
which  the  Atlantic,  Pacific  and  Indian  Oceans  furnish 
many  examples  every  year,  have  yet  to  be  fully  ex- 
plained, as  some  of  them  are  accompanied  by  all  the 
phenomena  of  lightning,  thunder  and  copious  show- 
ers of  rain.  This  may  add  to  the  many  theories 
already  advanced,  the  broad  explanation  that  elec- 
trical changes  and  influences  will  supply.  The  many 
examples  recorded  of  the  destructive  forces  of  these 
storms,  these  myriads  of  whirlwinds,  traveling  across 
sea  or  land,  are  too  well  known  to  need  repetition 
here. 

From  Birt's  Hand-Book  of  Storms,  furnishint{  a 
record  of  hurricanes  for  a  year's  time,  I  find  the  West 
Indies  credited  with  113;  South  Indian  Ocean,  53; 
Mauritius,  53  ;  Bay  of  Bengal,  30;  and  the  China  Sea 
(Pacific),  46. 

RAINFALL    OF    THE    PACIFIC    ISLANDS. 

With  but  very  few  exceptions,  the  island  world  is 
bountifully  supplied  with  rain.  True,  some  are  with- 
out sufficient  moisture  apparently,  although  the  pro- 
fuse vegetation  throughout  the  different  groups  testify 
to  an  abundant  supply.  About  the  only  exceptions 
are  some  of  the  volcanic  rocks  and  guano  islands, 
whose  bare  surfaces,  have  not  the  requisites  for  at- 
tractlnof  moisture. 

At  the  Aleutian  Isles  there  Is  more  than  enouorh, 
while  Queen  Charlotte  and  Vancouver  Islands  abound 
in  running  streams  from  bounteous  rains.  The  islands 
alongf  the  coasts  of  California  and  Mexico  are  not  so 


282  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

fortunate  in  this  respect ;  but  unimportant  as  they  are 
.in  size  and  products,  this  want  is  only  felt  locally,  and 
is  not  of  general  Importance.  The  Hawaiian  group, 
with  a  rainfall  of  thirty-six  inches  per  annum,  may  be 
said  to  have  an  abundance.  The  Galapagos,  and  islands 
further  south,  have  barely  a  sufficiency,  until  the  islands 
of  Southern  Chili  are  met,  and  clear  on  to  Cape  Horn, 
where  the  rainfall  often  reaches  200  inches  in  a  year. 
The  islands  of  Juan  F'ernandez,  Mas-a-Fuera,  Pit- 
cairn,  the  Paumatous,  Society,  Fiji,  Friendly,  Samoa, 
Marquesas,  New  Caledonia,  the  Marshall  system, 
etc.,  attest,  by  the  profusion  of  natural  vegetation,  an 
abundant  rainfall.  New  Zealand,  Tasmania  and  Aus- 
tralia have  copious  showers,  though  the  latter,  with  her 
immense  interior  wastes,  with  their  great  evaporating 
powers,  leaves  surface  water  scarce.  The  Solomon  Arch- 
ipelago, Santa  Cruz,  the  New  Guinea,  Ireland,  Britain, 
Admiralty  islands  and  groups,  have  abundant  moisture. 
Java,  Celebes,  Borneo,  the  Molluccas  and  Sumatra 
are  in  some  localities,  too  well  supplied,  the  fall  of 
rain  in  parts  of  Sumatra  and  Borneo  being  from 
100  to  200  inches  per  annum.  Still  further  west, 
and  In  the  northeast  part  of  the  Bay  of  Bengal, 
among  the  KhasI  Hills,  It  Is  said  that  the  mean  record 
of  rainfall  for  twenty  years  is  something  like  493.19 
inches  per  annum,  claimed  to  be  the  greatest  recorded 
rainfall  on  the  globe.  The  islands  of  the  Chinese 
Empire,  as  well  as  the  Philllpplnes  and  Japan,  are  all 
in  the  range  of  abundant  precipitation.  In  fact, 
throughout  the  islands  of  the  Pacific,  water  has  never 
been  a  drawback.  True,  in  some  spots  surface  mois- 
ture is  scarce,  yet  In  nearly  every  case,  where  sinking 
has  been  resorted  to,  a  plentiful  supply  of  fresh  water 
has  been  met  with. 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  283 

PORTS    AND    HARBORS. 

The  following  exact  geographical  location  of  some 
of  the  principal  harbors  and  ports  of  the  Pacific  islands, 
are  taken  from  lists  in  the  United  States  Hydrographic 
Office : 

Anger,  Java. — Fourth  Point  Lighthouse  (time  ball). 

6  deg.  4  min.  18  sec,  S.  lat;    105  deg.  53  min.  o 

sec,  E.  long,  Netherlands  Hydrographic  Office. 
Austral  (Tubuai)  Islands. — Rouroutou  Island,  North 

Point.     22  deg.  29  min.  o  sec,  S.  lat;  151  deg.  23 

min.  41  sec,  W.  long.     Kulczki. 
Acapulco,  Mexico. — Northwest  angle  of  Fort.     16 

deg.  50  min.  56  sec,  N.  lat.;    99  deg.  55  min.   28 

sec,  W.  long.     Commmander  Philip,  U.  S.  N. 
Australia,  Sydney. — Observatory,     ^t^  deg.  51   min. 

41  sec,  S.  lat.;   151  deg.  12  min.  39  sec,  E.  long. 

Nautical  Almanac 
Australia,  Adelaide  Port. — Snapper  Point.    34  deg. 

46  min.  50  sec,  S.  lat.;  138  deg.  31  min.  o  sec.  E. 

long.     Australia  Directory, 
Australia,    Melbourne. —  Observatory.     2il  deg.  49 

min.  53  sec,  S.  lat.;    144  deg.  58  min.  42  sec,  E. 

long.     Nautical  Almanac. 
Bandger  Massin,  Borneo. — Residency  flag-staff    3 

deg.  18  min.  55  sec,  S.  lat,;    114  deg.   35  min.  8 

sec,  E.  long.  Netherlands  Hydrographic  Office. 
Batavia,  Java. — Observatory  (time  ball).     6  deg.   7 

min.  40  sec,  S.  lat.;    106  deg.  49  min.   7  sec,   E. 

long.     Netherlands  Hydrographic  Office. 
Barrow   Point,    Alaska. —  Highest   latitude  of  the 

United    States.      71   deg.  27  min.  o  sec,   N.  lat.; 

156  deg.  15  min.  o  sec,  W.  long.    Capt.  Beechey, 

R.  N. 


284  'T^^'   ISLAND  WORLD 

Bonin  Islands,  Peel  Island. — Port  Lloyd  Observa- 
tory. 27  deg".  5  mill.  2)1  sec,  N.  lat.;  142  deg.  11 
min.  30  sec,  E.  long.  Commodore  Rodgers, 
U.  S.  N. 

Caroline  Islands,  Hogoleu. — Nordi  end  of  Isis  Islet. 
7  deg.  18  min.  30  sec,  N.  lat.;  151  deg.  56  min. 
30  sec,  E.  long.     Captain  Simpson,  R.  N. 

Christmas  Island. — North  Point  of  Cook  Islet,  i 
deg.  57  min.  17  sec,  N.  lat.;  157  deg.  27  min.  46 
sec,  W.  long.      Captain  Skerrett.  U.  S.  N. 

Fanning  Island.  —  Flag-staff,  entrance  to  English 
Harbor.  3  deg.  51  min.  26  sec,  N.  lat;  159  deg. 
23  min.  35  sec,  W.  long.     English  survey. 

Farallone  Islets,  California.  —  Lighthouse,  South 
Islet.  21  ^^Z-  4^  "'^^''^-  49  '^^^•^  N.  lat.;  123  deg. 
o  min.  4  sec,  W.  long.  U.  S.  Coast  and  Geodetic 
Survey. 

Fiji  Islands. — Vanua  Lavu  Island,  M'bua  Bay,  Dimba, 
Dimba  Point.  16  deg.  48  min.  10  sec,  S.  lat.; 
178  <^^'g'  26  min.  14  sec,  E.  long.  Findlay  South 
Sea  Directory. 

Fiji  Islands. — Vid  Lavu  Island,  Summit  of  Malolo 
Islet.  17  deg.  44  min.  45  sec,  S.  lat.;  177  deg. 
9  min.  o  sec,  E.  long,      English  survey. 

Friendly  Islands. — Tonga-Tabu  Island,  Nukalofa; 
King's  Garden.  21  deg.  8  min.  20  sec,  S.  lat., 
175  ^leg.  8  min.  7  sec,  W.  long.  Lieut.  Heath, 
R.  N. 

Formosa  Island. — Kelung  Harbor,  south  shore.  25 
deg.  8  min.  25  sec,  N.  lat.;  121  deg.  45  min,  30 
sec,  E.  long.     Captain  Collinson,  R.  N. 

Galapagos  Islands. — Charles  Island,  summit  (1,780 
feet).  I  deg.  19  min.  o  sec,  S.  lat;  90  deg,  28 
min,  o  sec,  W.  long.     Captain  Fitzroy,  R.  N. 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  283 

Galapagos  Islands.  —  Abingdon  Island,  summit 
(1,950  feet),  o  deg.  34  min.  25  sec,  N.  lat.;  90 
deg.  44  min.  10  sec,  W.  long.  Captain  Fitzroy, 
R.  N. 

Gilbert  or  Kingsmill  Islands. — Auroral  or  Hurd's 

Island,   South   Point.     2  deg.  40  min.  54  sec,  S. 

lat;    177  deg.  i   min.  13  sec,  E.  long.     Findlay, 

South  Pacific. 
Hainan  Island  (China). — CapeBastian  extreme.    18 

deg.  9  min.  30  sec,  N.  lat.;    109  deg.  33  min.  30 

sec,  E.  long.     China  Sea  Directory. 
Juan  Fernandez  Island. — Fort  S.  Juan  Bautista.    33 

deg.  Ti']  min.  36  sec,  S.  lat.;    ']'^   deg.  49  min.  45 

sec,  W.  long.     English  survey. 
Ladrone  or  Mariana   Islands. — Ascension  Island. 

Crater   (2,600   feet).      19  deg.  45  min.  o  sec,  N. 

lat.;    145.  deg.  30  min.  o  sec,  E.  long.     Captain 

Sanchez,  Spanish  Navy. 

Louisade  Archipelago. — St.  Aignan  Island,  summit. 

10  deg.  42  min.  o  sec,  S.  lat.;    152  deg.  43  min.  o 

sec,  E.  long.     Australia  Directory. 
Loyalty  Islands. — Mare   or  Britania  Island,  South 

Point.      21    deg.  42   min.  o  sec,  S.  lat;    168  deg. 

o  min.  o  sec,  E.  long.    Admiral  D'Urville,  French 

Navy. 
Manila  (Island  of  Luzon,  Philippine  Group)  Cathe- 
dral.— 14  deg.  35  min.  31  sec,  N.  lat;    120  deg. 

58    min.    3    sec,   E.   long.      Lieut.   Commanders 

Green  and   Davis,  U.  S.  N. 
Marquesas  Islands. — Nuka  Hiva  Island,  Port  Tai-o- 

hae,  French  Hill.     8  deg.  54  min.  11  sec,  S.  lat.; 

140  deg.  5   min.  6  sec,  W.   long.     Lieutenant  J. 

E.  Craig.  U.  S.  N. 


286  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

Mas-a-fuera  Island. — Summit  (4,000  feet),  i:}^  deg. 
46  min.  o  sec,  S,  lat.;  80  deg.  46  min.  o  sec.  W. 
long.      H.  M.  S.  Albatross. 

Marshall  Islands. — Arhuo  Atoll,  Northeast  Point. 
7  deg.  9  min.  17  sec,  N.  lat.;  176  deg.  56  min. 
30  sec,  E.  long.     Commander  Meade,  U.  S.  N. 

Mulgrave  Islands. — Port  Rhiu,  north  side  of  en- 
trance. 6  deg.  14  min.  o  sec,  N.  lat.;  171  deg. 
46  min.  o  sec,  E.  long.  Captain  Berard,  French 
Navy. 

Mazatlan,  Mexico. — Signal  station.  23  deg.  11  min. 
17  sec,  N.  lat.;  106  deg.  26  min.  39  sec,  W.  long. 
Commander  Dewey,  U.  S.  N. 

New  Britain. — Blanche  Bay,  Matupi  Island,  North- 
east Point.  4  deg.  13  min.  20  sec,  S.  lat.;  152 
deg.  10  min.  18  sec,  E.  long.     German  survey. 

New  Caledonia. — Harbor  of  Noumea,  Lighthouse  at 
office  of  Captain  of  the  Port.  22  deg.  16  min.  20 
sec,  S.  lat.;  166  deg.  27  min.  8  sec,  E.  long. 
Lio^hthouse  List. 

New  Guinea. — Cape  Cretin,  Cretin  Islets.  6  deg. 
43  min.  o  sec,  S.  lat.;  147  deg.  53  min.  20  sec, 
E.  long.     Captain  Moresby,  R.  N. 

New  Hebrides  Islands. — Aniteum  Island,  Port  Ani- 
teum,  Sand  Islet.  20  deg.  15  min.  17  sec,  S.  lat.; 
169  deg.  44  min.  44  sec,  E.  long.  Captain  Den- 
ham,  R.  N. 

New  Hebrides  Islands. — Tanna  Island,  Port  Resolu- 
tion, Mission.  19  deg.  31  min.  17  sec,  S.  lat.; 
169  deg.  27  min.  30  sec,  E.  long.  Captain  Den- 
ham,  R.  N. 

New  Ireland. — Carteret  Harbor,  Cocoanut  Islet.  4 
deg.  41  min.  26  sec,  S.  lat;  152  deg.  42  min.  25 
sec,  E.  long.     Captain  Belcher,  R.  N. 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  287 

North  Islands. — Queen  Charlotte  Island,  NorthPoint. 

— 54  deg.  20  min.  o  sec,  N.  lat.;   133  deg.  o  min. 

o  sec,  W.  long.     English. 
New  Zealand. — Oueenstown,  U.  S.  Transit-of-Venus 

Station.     45  deg.  2  min.  7  sec,  S.  lat.;   168  deg. 

40    min.    6    sec,    E.    long.       Captain    Raymond, 

U.  S.  A. 
Nagasaki,  Japan. — North   angle    of  Custom-house 

Sea-wall.      32   deg.  44  min.  35   sec,  N.  lat.;    129 

deg.  52  min.  9  sec,  E.  long.     Lieut.  Commanders 

Green  and  Davis,  U.  S.  N. 
Panama. — South  Tower  of  Cathedral.    8  deg.  5 1  min. 

12  sec,  N.  lat.;   79  deg.  32  min.  12  sec,  W.  long. 

Lieut.  Commander  Green,  U.  S.  N. 
Paumatou  Islands  (Low  Archipelago). — Arnanu  or 

Muller  Island,  Southwest  Point.      17  deg.  53  min, 

20  sec,  S.  lat.;  140  deg.  50  min.  26  sec,W.  long. 

Commaisance  des  Temps. 
Phoenix  Islands. — Gardner's  Island,  center.     4  deg. 

47  min.  42  sec,  S.  lat;    174  deg.  40  min.  18  sec, 

W.  long.     Commander  Wilkes,  U.  S.  N. 
Pitcairn  Island. — Village.    25  deg.  3  min.  t^j  sec,  S. 

lat;    130  deg.  8  min.  37  sec,  W.  long.     Captain 

Beechy,  R.  N. 
Samoan  Islands. — Savaii  Island,  Paluale  Village.    1 3 

deg.  45  min.  o  sec,  S.  lat ;  1 72  deg.  1 7  min.  o  sec, 

W.  long.     Commander  Wilkes,  U.  S.  N. 
Samoan  Islands. — Upolu  Island,  Apia  Harbor,   Ru- 

gis  Wharf      13  deg.  48  min.  56  sec,  S.  lat;   171 

deg.  47  min.  34  sec,  W.  long.    Captain  Richards, 

R.  N. 
Santa  Cruz  Islands. — Vanikoro,  Ocili  Village.     1 1 

deg.  39  min.  30  sec,  S.  lat;    166  deg.  55  min.  10 

sec,  E.  long.     Admiral  D'Urville. 


288  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

Society    Islands. — Boru-bom   Island,    Otea   Vanua 

Village.      1 6    deg.    31    min.   35  sec,  S.  lat;    151 

deg.  46  min.  o  sec,  W.  long.     Findlay. 
Society    Islands. — Tahiti    Island,    Papiete    Harbor, 

Motu-uta  Islet.      17  deg.  31  min.  39  sec,  S.  lat; 

149  deg.  34  min.  16  sec,  W.  long.     Connaisance 

des  Temps. 
Solomon  Islands. — Bougainville   Island,    Northeast 

Point.     5   deg.  30  min.  o  sec,   S.   lat.;    155    deg. 

17  min.  14  sec,  E.  long.     Admiral  D'Urville. 
Sumatra,   Padang. — Apenberg  flagstaff,     o  deg.  58 

min.  I  sec,  S.  lat;   100  deg.  20  min.    13  sec,  E. 

long.     Netherlands  Hydrographic  Office. 
Singapore. — Fullerton  Battery,     i    deg,    1 7   min.   1 1 

sec,  N.  lat.;   103   deg.  51    min.    15    sec,,  E.  long. 

Lieut.  Commanders   Green   and   Davis,  U.  S.  N. 
Sandwich    Islands. — Hawaii,  Hilo   Bay  Lighthouse, 

19  deg.  45  min.  o  sec,  N.  lat;    155  deg:,    5    min. 

o  sec,  W.  long.     Light  House  List. 
Sandwich  Islands. — Oahu.  Honolulu,    Reef  Light- 
house.     21  deg.  17  min.  55  sec,  N.  lat;   157  deg. 

52  min.  13  sec,  W.  long.     Hawaiian  Government 

Survey. 

Sitka,  Alaska. — Middle  of  parade  ground.     57  deg. 

2  min.  52  sec,  N.  lat;   135  deg.  19  min.   31   sec, 

V/.  long.     U.  S.  Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey. 
San  Francisco,  Cal. — Presidio  Station,      t^j  deg.  47 

min.  30  sec,  N.  lat;   122  deg.  27  min.  49  sec,  W. 

long.     U.  S.  Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey. 
San    Diego. — Coast    Survey    Astronomical    Station. 

32  deg.  43  min.  6  sec,  N.  lat;     117   deg.   9   min. 

40  sec,  W.   long.     U.    S.    Coast   and   Geodetic 

Survey. 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  289 

Tasmania. — Hobart  Town,  Transit  of  Venus  Sta- 
tion. 42  cleg.  53  min,  25  sec,  S.  lat..;  147  deg. 
20  min.  7  sec,  E.  long.  Professor  Harkness. 
.  U.  S.  N. 

Union  (Tokalau)  Islands. — Nuku-Nono,  or  Duke 
of  Clarence  Island,  Southeast  Point.  9  deg.  1 1 
min.  15  sec,  S.  lat..;  171  deg.  '^']  min.  2  sec,  W. 
long.      Commander  Wilkes,  U.  S.  N. 

Valparaiso,  Chili. — Site  of  San  Antonio  Fort.  33 
deg.  I  min.  53  sec,  S.  lat.;  71  deg.  ^'^  min.,  W. 
long.      English  Survey. 

Vancouver  Island. — Esquimalt,  Lighthouse.  48  deg. 
25  min.  40  sec,  N.  lat.  123  deg.  27  min.  20  sec 
W.  long.     Admiralty  Light  List. 

Yokohama,  Japan. — Flag-staff  English  naval  store- 
house. 35  deg.  26  min.  24  sec,  N.  lat.;  139  deg. 
39  min.  14  sec,  E.  long.  Lieut.  Commanders 
Green  and  Davis,  U.  S.  N. 


2^0  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 


CHAPTER   XIX. 


TVISTORirCAI^    AI«{I>    BIOGRAPHICAX,. 


And  now,  rejoicing  in  the  prosperous  gales, 
With  beating  heart,  Ulysses  spreads  his  sails  ; 
Placed  at  the  helm  he  sate,  and  marked  the  skies, 
Nor  closed  in  sleep  his  ever-watchful  eyes. 
There  viewed  the  Pleiads  and  the  Northern  Team, 
And  great  Orion's  more  refulgent  beam, 
To  which,  around  the  axle  of  the  sky, 
The  Bear,  revolving,  points  his  golden  eye  ; 
Who  shines  exalted  on  the  ethereal  plain. 
Nor  bathes  his  blazing  forehead  in  the  main.       * 

Pope's  {Homer's  Odyssey.) _ 

THE  first  nation  or  people  in  the  world,  to  make 
any  practical  progress  in  navigation  and  com- 
merce, or  carry  on  any  considerable  traffic,  mak- 
ing the  seas  and  oceans  serve  as  a  highway,  were — 
with  the  possible  exception  of  the  Chinese — the  Phoe- 
nicians. Our  accounts  of  them  date  as  far  back  as 
^800  years  before  the  Christian  era.  Phoenicia  was 
one  of  the  smallest  countries  of  antiquity.  It  occupied 
that  part  of  the  Syrian  coast,  which  stretches  from 
Aradus  (the  modern  Ronad)  on  the  north,  to  a  little 
below  Tyre  on  the  south — a  distance  of  about  fifty 
leagues.  Its  breadth  was  much  less,  being,  for  the 
most  part,  bounded  by  Mount  Libanus  to  the  east,  and 
Mount  Carmel    on    the   south.     The   surface  of   this 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  291 

narrow  tract  was  generally  rugged  and  mountainous, 
and  the  soil  in  the  valley,  though  moderately  fertile, 
did  not  afford  sufficient  supplies  of  food,  to  feed  the 
population.  Libanus  and  its  dependent  ridges  were, 
however,  covered  with  timber,  suitable  for  ship  build- 
ing; and  besides  Tyre  and  SIdon,  Phoenicia  possessed 
the  ports  of  Tripoli,  Byblos,  Berytus,  etc.  In  this  situ- 
ation, occupying  a  country  unable  to  supply  them  with 
sufficient  quantities  of  corn — hemmed  in  by  mountains 
and  powerful  and  warlike  neighbors,  on  the  one  hand, 
and  having,  on  the  other,  the  wide  expanse  of  the 
Mediterranean,  studded  with  islands,  and  surrounded 
by  fertile  countries,  to  invite  the  enterprise  of  her  citi- 
zens— ^they  were  naturally  led  to  engage  in  maritime 
and  commercial  adventures,  and  became  the  boldest 
and  most  experienced  mariners,  and  the  greatest  dis- 
coverers, of  ancient  times. 

MERCHANTS  OF  THE  OLDEN  TIME, 

From  the  remotest  antiquity,  a  considerable  trade 
seems  to  have  been  carried  on,  between  the  Eastern 
and  Western  worlds.  The  spices,  drugs,  precious 
stones,  and  other  valuable  products  of  Arabia  and 
India,  have  always  been  highly  esteemed  in  Europe, 
and  have  been  exchanged  for  the  gold  and  silver,  the 
tin,  wines,  etc.,  of  the  latter.  At  the  first  dawn  of 
authentic  history,  we  find  Phoenicia  the  principal  centre 
of  this  commerce. 

THE     PHOENICIANS. 

Her  inhabitants  are  designated,  in  the  early  sacred 
writings,  by  the  name  of  Canaanites — a  term  which,  in 
the   language    of  the   East,   means   merchants.     The 


2^2  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

products  of  Arabia,  India,  Persia,  etc.,  were  originally 
conveyed  to  her  by  companies  of  traveling  merchants, 
or  caravans,  which   seem  to  have   performed  exacdy 
the  same  part,  in  the  commerce  of  the  East,  in  the  days 
of  Jacob,  that  they  do  at  present.      (Genesis,  xxxvii, 
25,  etc.)     At  a  later  period,   however,   in   the  reigns 
of  David  and  Solomon,  the  Phoenicians,  having  formed 
an   alliance  with   the  Hebrews,  acquired   the  ports  of 
Elath   and   Eziongeber,  at  the  northeast  extremit}'  of 
the  Red  Sea.    Here  they  fitted  out  fleets,  which  traded 
with    the   ports   on   that,  and    probably  with  those  of 
Southern  Arabia,  the  west  coast  of  India,  and  Ethiopia. 
The  distance  of  the  Red  Sea  from  Tyre  being  very 
considerable,  the  conveyance  of  goods  from  one  to  the 
other,  by  land,  must  have  been  tedious  and  expensive. 
To  lessen  this  inconvenience,  the  Tyrians,  shortly  after 
they  got   possession  of  Elath  and   Eziongeber,   seized 
upon  Rhinoculura,   the    port    on    the   Mediterranean, 
nearest  the  Red  Sea.     The  products  of  Arabia,  India, 
and  adjacent  countries,  being  carried  thither,  were  then 
put  on  board  ships,  and  conveyed,  by  a  brief  and  easy 
voyage,  to  Tyre.     If  we  except  the  transit  by  Egypt 
(overland),  this  was  the  shortest  and  most  direct,  and 
for  that    reason,  no   doubt,  the   cheapest  channel,  by 
which    the    commerce    between    Southern    Asia    and 
Europe  could   then  be  conducted.     But  it  is   not  be- 
lieved, that   the  Phoenicians  possessed  any  permanent 
footing  on  the  Red   Sea,  after  the  death  of  Solomon. 
The  want  of  it  does  not,  however,  seem  to  have  sensi- 
bly afifected  their  trade,  and   Tyre   continued,   till  the 
foundation  of  Alexandria,  to  be  the  grand  emporium 
for  Eastern  products,  with    which    it  was    abundantly 
supplied,  by   caravans  from  Arabia,  the  bottom  of  the 
Persian  Gulf,  and  from  Babylon,  by  way  of  Palmyra. 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  2pj 

COMMERCE. 

The  commerce  of  the  Phoenicians  with  the  coun- 
tries bordering  on  the  Mediterranean,  was  still  more 
extensive  and  valuable.  At  an  early  period,  they 
established  settlements  in  Cyprus  and  Rhodes.  The 
former  was  a  very  valuable  acquisition,  from  its  prox- 
imity, the  number  of  its  ports,  its  fertility,  and  the  vari- 
ety of  its  vegetable  and  mineral  productions.  Having 
passed,  successively,  into  Greece,  Italy  and  Sardinia, 
they  proceeded  to  explore  the  southern  shores  of 
France  and  Spain,  and  the  northern  shores  of  Africa, 
They  afterwards  adventured  upon  the  Atlantic,  and 
were  the  first  people,  whose  flag  was  displayed  beyond 
the  pillars  of  Hercules. 

INVENTIONS    AND    MANUFACTURES. 

Nor  were  the  Phoenicians  celebrated  only  for  their 
wealth,  and  the  extent  of  their  commerce  and  naviga- 
tion. Their  fame,  and  their  riofht  to  be  classed  amongfst 
those  who  have  conferred  the  greatest  benefits  on 
mankind,  rest  on  a  still  more  unassailable  foundation. 
Antiquity  is  unanimous  in  ascribing  to  them  the  inven- 
tion and  practice  of  all  those  arts,  sciences  and  contri- 
vances, that  facilitate  the  prosecution  of  commercial 
undertakings.  They  are  held  to  be  the  inventors  of 
arithmetic,  weights  and  measures,  of  money,  of  the  art 
of  keeping  accounts,  and,  in  short,  of  everything  that 
belongs  to  the  business  of  a  counting-house.  They 
were  also  famous  for  the  invention  of  ship  building 
and  navigation ;  for  the  discovery  of  glass ;  for  their 
manufacture  of  fine  linen  and  tapestry;  for  their  skill 
in  architecture,  and   in  the  art  of  working  metals  and 


294  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

ivory;  and  still  more,  for  the  incomparable -splendor 
and  beauty  of  their  purple  dye. 

But  the  invention  and  dissemination  of  these  highly 
useful  arts,  form  but  a  part  of  what  the  people  of 
Europe  owe  to  the  Phoenicians. 

It  is  not  possible  to  say  in  what  degree  the  relig- 
ion of  the  Greeks  was  borrowed  from  theirs,  but  that 
it  was  to  a  pretty  large  extent,  seems  abundantly  cer- 
tain. Hercules,  under  the  name  of  Melcarthus  was 
the  tutelar  deity  of  Tyre,  and  his  expeditions  along 
the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  to  the  straits 
connecting  it  with  the  ocean,  seem  to  be  merely 
a  poetical  representation  of  the  progress  of  the 
Phoenician  navigators,  who  introduced  arts  and  civ- 
ilization, and  established  the  worship  of  Hercules 
wherever  they  went. 

The  Greeks  were,  however,  indebted  to  the  Phoe- 
nicians, not  merely  for  the  rudiments  of  civilization,  but 
for  the  great  instrument  of  its  future  progress — the 
gift  of  letters.  No  fact  in  ancient  history  is  better 
established  than  that  a  knowledge  of  alphabetic 
writing  was  first  carried  to  Greece  by  Phoenician  ad- 
venturers, and  it  may  be  safely  affirmed  that  this  was 
the  greatest  boon  any  people  ever  received  at  the 
hands  of  another. 

Before  quitting  this  subject,  we  may  briefly  advert 
to  the  statement  of  Herodotus  with  respect  to  the  cir- 
cumnavigation of  Africa  by  Phoenician  sailors.  The 
venerable  father  of  history  states  that  a  fleet  fitted 
out  by  Necho,  King  of  Egypt,  but  manned  and  com- 
manded by  Phoenicians,  took  its  departure  from  a  port 
on  the  Red  Sea,  at  an  epoch  which  is  believed  to  cor- 
respond with  the  year  604,  before  the  Christian  era ; 
and    that    keeping   always  to  the  right,  they  doubled 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  29s 

the  southern  promontory  of  Africa,  and  returned  after 
a  voyage  of  three  years  to  Egypt,  by  the  Pillars  of 
Hercules.  (Herod,  lib,  4,  p.  42.)  Herodotus  further 
mentions  that  they  related  that  in  sailing  around  Af- 
rica, they  had  the  sun  on  the  right  hand,  or  to  the 
north — a  circumstance  which  he  frankly  acknowledges 
seemed  incredible  to  him,  but  which,  as  every  one  is 
now  aware,  must  have  been  the  case,  if  the  voyage  was 
actually  performed. 

Many  learned  and  able  writers,  and  particularly 
Gosselin  (Reherches  sur  la  Geographic  Systematique 
et  Positive  des  Anciens,  vol.  i,  p.  204-217),  have 
treated  this  account  as  fabulous.  But  the  objections 
of  Gosselin  have  been  successfully  answered  in  an 
elaborate  note  by  Larcher  (Herodote,  vol.  3,  pp.  458— 
464,  ed,  1802);  and  Major  Rennel  has  sufficiently 
demonstrated  the  practicability  of  the  voyage.  (Ge- 
ography of  Herodotus,  p.  682,) 

Without  entering  upon  this  discussion,  we  may 
observe  that  not  one  of  those  who  question  the  au- 
thenticity of  the  account  given  by  Herodotus,  pre- 
sume to  doubt  that  the  Phoenicians  braved  the  bois- 
terous seas  on  the  coasts  of  Spain,  Gaul  and  Britain, 
and  that  they  had  partially,  at  least,  explored  the 
Indian  Ocean.  But  the  ships  and  seamen  that  did 
this  much,  might,  undoubtedly,  under  favorable  circum- 
stances, double  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  The  relation 
of  Herodotus  has,  besides,  such  an  appearance  of  good 
faith,  and  the  circumstance  which  he  doubts,  of  the 
navigators  having  seen  the  sun  on  the  right,  affords 
so  strong  a  confirmation  of  its  truth,  that  there  reall)' 
seems  no  reasonable  ground  for  doubting  that  the 
Phoenicians  preceded  by  2,000  years  Vasco  de  Gama 
in  his  perilous  enterprise. 

(McCulloch,  Diet.  Com.  and  Commer.  Nav.,  vol.  2,) 


2g6  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

THE    COMPASS. 

It  has  not  been  my  purpose  to  trace  navigation 
from  its  early  dawn  to  the  present  time,  in  more  than 
a  general  way,  as  thorough  research  and  investiga- 
tion into  this  interesting  subject  would  require  a  sep- 
arate volume.  History  of  both  ancient  and  modern 
times  is  so  replete  with  the  commercial  ventures  of 
countries,  with  accounts  of  voyages,  discoveries  and 
traffic,  both  by  sea  and  land,  that  little  doubt  is  left  of 
the  early  knowledge  and  use  of  the  compass,  the  in- 
vention and  perfection  of  which  is  generally  ascribed 
to  a  more  modern  period. 

The  knowledge  of  the  cardinal  points,  as  well  as 
the  use,  probably  in  a  rude  way.  of  that  important 
little  instrument,  the  compass,  we  can  trace  back 
among  the  Chinese  for  nearly  3,000  years  b.  c.  The 
knowledge  of  the  true  north,  with  its  curious  attrac- 
tion and  influence  on  the  magnetic  needle,  turning 
and  holding  it  at  nearly  right  angles  with  the  points 
of  the  rising  and  setting  of  the  sun,  was  not  only 
familiar  and  commented  upon,  but  was  put  in  prac- 
tical use  by  the  ancients  of  the  higher  order  of  intel- 
ligence, like  the  Chinese.  Phoenicians,  Egyptians, 
Grecians  and  Japanese. 

The  almost  exact  position  retained  in  the  heavens 
by  the  North  Star,  with  the  universe  apparently 
sweeping  in  vast  circles  around  it,  must  at  first  have 
been  used  as  a  guiding-point,  while  it  would  have 
been  natural  to  take  the  opposite  point  for  the  other 
course.  The  other  two  points,  east  and  west,  were 
no  doubt  taken  from  the  rising  and  setting  of  the 
sun,  thus  giving  in  a  perfectly  natural  way  the  car- 
dinal points  of  the  compass; 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  297 

PROPERTIES    OF    THE    MAGNETIC    NEEDLE. 

It  has  been  supposed  that  many  of  the  ventures 
performed  by  the  ancients  at  sea  were  onl)-  made 
during  the  day,  the  mariners  anchoring  during  die 
night,  never  venturing  far  from  land,  or  a  depth 
of  water  too  great  for  anchorage.  This  theory,  I  do 
not  think,  will  bear  very  close  inspection,  as  stormy 
weather  and  a  lee  shore  would  have  rendered  any 
great  voyages  impossible.  The  knowledge  and  prac- 
tice of  the  ancients  in  mining  and  working  the  metals 
must  have  been  considerable,  as  many  of  the  writings 
of  the  fathers  of  literature  will  testify.  The  proper- 
ties of  magnetic  iron  ore,  the  load-stone  of  ancient 
and  modern  times,  its  faculty  of  not  only  attracting 
iron  and  steel,  but  of  imparting  its  polar  peculiarities 
to  these  metals,  must  have  formed  a  long  and  curious 
study,  and  ages  may  have  passed  before  some  genius 
first  tried  and  tested,  or  discovered  its  unvarying  ten- 
dency, when  so  placed  as  to  be  little  retarded  in  its 
movements,  of  turning  and  placing  itself  at  right 
angles  with  the  rising  and  setting  of  the  sun,  and 
pointing  to  the  north.  These  first  experiments  must 
have  been  made  after  the  ore  had  been  brought  to  a 
metallic  form  and  the  metal  shaped  in  the  form  of  a 
needle,  much  in  use  in  the  olden  time  for  their  knit- 
ting, embroideries,  tapestries  and  lace-work,  for  which 
the  ancients  of  the  higher  order  were  so  justly  cele- 
brated. 

BY    WHOM    INVENTED. 

Yet  it  is  the  common  opinion,  in  our  modern  day, 
that  the  compass  and  its  uses  was  the  invention  of 
Flavio  Gioja,  a  citizen  of  the  once  famous  republic  of 


298  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

Amalphi,  very  near  the  beginning  of  1300  a.  d. 
Many  who  wrote  long  years  previous  to  this  period, 
give  abundant  evidences  of  its  knowledge  and  uses. 
Thus  the  great  Spanish  antiquary,  Antonio  de  Capo- 
many,  and  the  famous  Raymond  Lully,  in  writings 
published  as  early  as  1272  a.  d,,  go  to  show  the  exact 
uses  made  of  the  compass  in  navigation.  In  one 
place  Lully  says:  "as  the  needle  when  touched  by  the 
magnet  naturally  turns  to  the  north;"  and  again,  in 
another  portion  of  his  writings,  he  says:  "As  the  nau- 
tical needle  direct  mariners  in  their  navigation;"  leav- 
ing us  with  the  impression,  as  they  were  writing  of 
periods  many  years  anterior  to  1200  a.  d.,  that  the 
little  compass  was  in  common  use  among  mariners 
and  "those  who  go  down  to  the  sea  in  ships." 

In  addition  to  the  evident  theoretical  knowledofe, 
of  a  portion  at  least,  of  the  world's  geography  had  by 
the  Egyptian  Ptolemies,  they  possessed  maps  and 
charts  of  all  the  regions  known  at  that  time.  . 

The  voyages  performed  by  Hanno,  Hippeas  and 
Pythias,  many  years  previous  to  the  Christian  era, 
were  hot  accomplished  without  considerable  knowledge 
of  geography  and  navigation. 

There  is  distinct  mention  made,  in  Chinese  his- 
tory, of  the  compass  points,  not  only  at  the  time  men- 
tioned above  (2634  \\.  c),  but  on  down  to  121  a.  d.,  and 
again  in  265  and  419  a.  d.  The  best  authorities  state, 
that  the  compass  was  iutroditccd  into  Europe  in  11 84 
A.  D.,  while  some  writers  ascribe  its  discovery  to  Gioja, 
at  the  commencement  of  1300  a.  d.  Dr.  Gilbert  states, 
that  it  was  introduced  into  Italy,  by  Marco  Polo,  in 
1295.  There  is  also  evidence  of  its  use  in  France  in 
1 1 50,  in  Syria  about  the  same  time,  and  in  Norway 
previous  to  1266. 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  299 


HOMER  S    KNOWLEDGE    OF    SHIP    BUILDING. 

Now  toils  the  hero  ;  trees  on  trees  o'erthrown, 

Fall  crackling  around  him,  and  the  forests  groaru 

Sudden,  full  twenty  on  the  plain  are  strow'd, 

And  lopp'd  and  lighten'd  of  their  branchy  load. 

At  equal  angles  these  disposed  to  join, 

He  smoothed  and  squared  them  by  rule  and  line. 

(The  wimbles  for  the  work,  Calypso  found,) 

With  these  he  pierced  them,  and  with  clinchers  bound. 

Long  and  capacious,  as  a  shipwright  forms 

Some  bark's  broad  bottom,  to  outride  the  storms, 

So  large  he  built  the  raft ;  then  ribb'd  it  strong, 

F>om  space  to  space,  and  nail'd  the  jilanks  along; 

These  formed  the  sides ;  the  deck  he  fashioned  last ; 

Then  o'er  the  vessel  raised  the  taper  mast, 

With  crossing  sail-yards  dancing  in  the  wind  ; 

And  to  the  helm,  the  guiding  rudder  joined ; 

With  yielding  osiers  fenced,  to  break  the  force 

Of  surging  waves,  and  steer  the  steady  course. 

Thy  loom.  Calypso,  for  the  future  sails 

Supplied  the  cloth,  capacious  of  the  gales. 

With  stays  and  cordage,  last  he  rigged  the  ship, 

And,  roll'd  on  levers,  launch'd  her  in  the  deej". 

Pope's  {Homer's  Odyssey.) 

In  the  quotations  presented,  from  the  "Odyssey" 
of  Homer — who  was  writinef  at  a  time  something-  over 
eight  hundred  years  previous  to  the  Christian  era,  and 
describing  events  that  took  place  about  i  200  i;.  c. — a 
famiHarity,  not  only  with  ship  building,  but  an  astro- 
nomical knowledge,  and  its  uses  in  navigation,  is  dis- 
played, that  may  justly  excite  wonder  and  admiration. 
Of  the  1,152  ships  Homer  describes  in  the  Iliad,  as 
carrying  troops,  and  participating  in  the  Trojan  war, 
not  one  is  mentioned  as  relying  solely  on  oars  as  a 
propelling  power.  All  are  described  as  sailing  vessels, 
and  ifnder  the  guidance  of  experienced  sailors  and 
navigators,  whose  knowledge  of  n9,vigation  descended 
from  previous  ages 


Soo       .  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

EARLY    NAVIGATORS    OF    THE    PACIFIC. 

Anson,  Lord  George. — Born  in  England  1697; 
died  1762.  Was  in  command  and  served  on  the  east 
coast  of  America ;  in  1739  was  recalled  on  the  out- 
break of  the  Spanish  war;  in  1740,  sailed  from  Eng- 
land with  eight  men  of  war,  to  harrass  the  Spaniards 
in  the  South  Seas,  by  way  of  Cape  Horn ;  crossed 
the  Pacific  with  only  one  of  his  fleet,  the  Ccnhirion, 
having  lost  most  of  his  men  through  scurvy ;  made 
some  valuable  captures  and  discoveries  among  the 
Pacific  Islands,  in  addition  to  contributing  through 
his  journals,  surveys  and  charts,  a  great  deal  of  in- 
formation in  regard  to  the  Pacific ;  served  successfully 
against  the  French  in  1 747,  and  was  promoted  through 
all  the  admiralty  grades  of  the  English  Navy ;  was  the 
author  of  a  book  very  celebrated  in  its  day,  entitled 
"Lord  Anson's  Voyage  Round  the  World." 

Balboa,  Vasco  Nunez  de. — Spanish  soldier  and 
navigator.  Born  in  Lapan  (by  some  authorities  at 
Xeres,  de  les  Cavalleros,  tlstramadura,  Spain)  in  1475, 
and  beheaded  at  Castilla  de  Oro  Darien  (or  at  Ada, 
near  there),  in  15 17.  He  first  sailed  on  the  Atlantic 
with  Bastidas,  and  afterwards  with  Enciso,  agent  of 
Ojeda,  finally  reaching  Darien  about  1513.  Jealousy 
and  dissension  among  the  leaders  resulted  in  leaving 
Balboa  in  command,  with  the  return  of  his  rivals  to 
.Spain,  where  misrepresentation  caused  an  order  to  be 
issued  for  his  recall  to  that  country.  Meantime,  Bal- 
boa had  made  many  friends,  among  whom  were  native 
chiefs  of  the  isthmus.  His  love  of  adventure,  with  a 
desire  to  conciliate  the  Spanish  king,  urged  him  to 
new    exploits    and   adventures.     This    resulted    from 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  301 

information  communicated  by  one  of  the  native  chiefs 
in  his  overland  journey  across  the  isthmus,  and  the 
discovery  (to  him)  of  the  Pacific  Ocean,  Septem- 
ber 26th,  15 13  (September  25th,  15 13 — Bancroft), 
taking  possession  in  the  name  of  Spain.  This  re- 
sulted in  his  re-estabhshment  in  favor  at  court,  and 
his  creation  to  the  rank  of  admiral  and  dejDuty  gov- 
ernor. The  viceroy  Davila,  of  the  new  province,  ar- 
rived at  Darien  some  time  in  15 14.  Jealousies  and 
dissension  between  the  commanders  continuing,  Balboa 
(whose  energy  and  restless  daring  ill-fitted  him  for  a  life 
of  political  intrigue),  with  great  enterprise  and  labor 
transported  the  timbers  and  other  materials  of  his  ships 
across  the  isthmus.  Rebuilding  his  vessel  on  the  Pacific 
shore  (in  15 15- 16- 17),  sailing  on  the  great  sea  and 
making  many  valuable  discoveries,  among  others  the 
Pearl  Islands  (and  through  tradition  only),  the  wealth 
and  location  of  Peru.  Through  the  wiles  of  Davila, 
or  Pedrarias,  he  was  induced  to  return  to  Darien,  and 
was  beheaded,  as  a  dangerous  political  offender.  As 
Balboa  is  often  credited  with  the  discovery  of  the  Pa- 
cific Ocean,  it  would  be  well  to  note  (and  not,  how- 
ever, with  all  due  respect  and  admiration  for  the  ad- 
venturous Spaniard)  the  voyages  of  the  celebrated 
Venetian  traveler,  Marco  Polo,  in  the  13th  century, 
and  the  voyages  and  discoveries  of  Post  Commander 
Antonio  d'Albreu  and  Francisco  Serram,  who  first 
saw  and  noted  the  island  of  Papua,  or  New  Guinea, 
in  151 1.  The  greatness  of  the  man  is  too  well  estab- 
lished by  history  to  require  any  additional  glory  from 
discoveries  not  justly  belonging  to  him.  The  feat  he 
performed  in  transporting  the  different  parts  of  his 
vessels  across  a  country,  that,  even  to-day,  is  a  laby- 
rinth of  foliage  and  a  net-work  of  almost  impassable 


302  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

mountains,  ravines,  and  swamps,  has  never  been  sur- 
passed. Speaking  of  him,  Herrera,  who  in  his  writings 
is  anything  but  enthusiastic,  says:  "No  Hving  man  in 
all  the  Indies  dared  attempt  such  an  enterprise,  or 
would  have  succeeded  in  it,  save  Vasco  Nufiez  de 
Balboa." 

Beechy,  Frederick  William. — Born  in  London 
in  1796;  died  in  1856.  An  English  naval  officer  of 
great  ability.  Served  in  English  Navy  during  wars 
with  France  and  America.  In  18 18  he  was  with 
Franklin,  in  Bucham's  Arctic  Expedition,  and  after- 
wards with  Parry,  in  the  voyage  of  the  Hecla;  served 
several  years  in  the  Pacific  Ocean,  making  many  val- 
uable surveys  and  discoveries ;  passed  through  Beh- 
ring's  Straits,  reaching  nearly  72  deg.  north  latitude. 
A  man  of  great  practical  attainments,  he  made  many 
valuable  additions  to  geography,  navigation,  meteor- 
ology, hydrography,  as  well  as  some  valuable  con- 
tributions to  literature ;    made  rear-admiral  in  English 

o 

Navy  in  1854,  and  President  of  the  Geographical  So- 
ciety in  1855. 

Banks,  Sir  Joseph. — Born  in  London  in  1743,  and 
died  in  1820.  Was  a  man  of  vast  scientific  attain- 
ments, explorer  and  voyager,  from  Labrador  to  New 
Foundland,  and  from  Iceland  and  the  Hebrides,  to  the 
Society  Islands  in  the  South  Sea.  He  accompanied 
Captain  Cook  in  his  first  voyage  to  the  Pacific,  to  ob- 
serve the  transit  of  Venus ;  his  valuable  services  in 
this  voyage,  occupying  three  years,  opened  up  much 
that  was  new  and  useful  to  the  scientific  world.  His 
discoveries,  in  natural  history  and  botany,  together 
with  many  valuable  drawings  and  specimens  and  vast 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  303 

collection  of  books,  he  bequeathed  to  the  British  Mu- 
seum. He  was  made  baronet  in  1781,  and  received 
the  Order  of  the  Bath  in  1795. 

Bougainville,  Louis  Antoine  de. — Born  in  Paris 
in  1729;  died  there  in  1814.  A  celebrated  author, 
politician,  soldier  and  sailor,  and  the  first  French  cir- 
cumnavigator of  the  globe.  Was  with  Montcalm  in 
Canada,  as  aid-de-camp ;  set  sail  around  the  world  in 
1766,  passing  through  the  Straits  of  Magellan,  and 
through  the  Paumatou  group,  discovering  new  islands, 
arriving  at  Tahiti  April  6th,  1768  ;  visited  the  Samoan 
group,  naming  them  the  Navigators,  called  at  the  New 
Hebrides,  and  made  a  partial  survey  of  the  east  coast 
of  Australia ;  sailed  through  the  Louisades  and  along 
the  Solomon  Archipelago,  and  harbored  at  Port  Pras- 
lin.  New  Ireland.  From  there,  after  repairing  his 
ships,  he  skirted  the  northern  coast  of  New  Guinea, 
discovered  some  new  islands,  and  through  the  Mol- 
luccas,  the  Indian  Ocean,  rounded  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  reaching  St.  Malo  in  1769,  after  an  absence  of 
about  two  years  and  four  months ;  published  a  2-vol- 
ume  account  of  his  voyage  in  177 1-2.  In  1778,  was  in 
command  in  the  French  navy,  and  served  against 
England,  in  the  American  War  of  Independence,  with 
distinguished  courage  and  ability.  Planned  several 
voyages  to  the  Arctic  Seas,  but  meeting  with  but 
little  encouragement,  resigned  from  the  navy  in  1 790 ; 
was  afterwards  ennobled  by  Napoleon  I. 

Behring,  Vitus — Born  in  Denmark  in  1680,  and 
died  in  1741.  He  entered  the  Russian  naval  service 
in  1 704,  and  was  made  captain  by  Peter  the  Great,  for 
distinguished  services.     He  was  placed   in   command 


304  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

in  1725,  of  a  voyage  of  discovery  to  the  Arctic  Seas; 
discovered  the  straits  that  bear  his  name,  and  the 
separation  between  Asia  and  America  (in  second  voyage 
of  1728),  outlining  and  surveying  the  coast  of  Siberia. 
He  made  a  third  voyage  in  1741,  on  a  North  Polar 
expedition,  reaching  about  69  deg.  north  latitude,  but 
owing  to  stress  of  weather  and  sickness  among  his 
crews,  was  compelled  to  return ;  was  wrecked  on 
Behring  Island,  in  55  deg.  22  min.  north  latitude,  166 
deg.  east  longitude,  where  he  died,  after  going  through 
all  the  hardships  that  could  befall  a  castaway  in  the 
desolate  Polar  Seas. 

Byron,  John. — Born  November  8th,  1723,  and 
died  April  loth,  1786.  Served  with  Anson  as  mid- 
shipman ;  was  wrecked  off  the  Patagonian  coast,  and 
lived  on  a  desolate  island  in  that  region  for  five 
years  ( 1 740-46)  ;  publishing  a  narative  of  his  suffer- 
ings in  1 768 ;  was  placed  in  command  of  an  exploring 
ex]>edition  in  1764,  making  some  important  dis- 
coveries. As  an  accomplished  sailor,  he^had  few 
superiors,  and  as  an  author,  met  with  success.  His 
sons  also  were  men  of  mark  and  ability,  culminating 
in  his  grandson.  Lord  Byron,  the  poet. 

Carteret,  Philip. — Was  captain  of  the  Swallow, 
one  of  the  vessels  under  Samuel  Wallis,  which  sailed 
from  England  on  a  voyage  of  discovery  to  the  South 
Seas,  August  22d,  1766;  his  second  voyage  was  on 
private  account,  discovering  and  naming  Gower  and 
Carteret  Isles,  Queen  Charlotte  Isles,  Pitcairn,  etc., 
rediscovering  and  naming  the  Admiralty  group,  and 
returning  to  England  in  1769. 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  303 

Cook,  Captain  James. — Born  In  Yorkshire,  Eng- 
land, October  27th,  1728,  and  killed  at  Owyhee  (now 
Hawaii),  one  of  the  Sandwich  Islands,  Februar)^  14th, 
1 799.  First  served  at  sea  in  merchant  line,  entering 
the  royal  navy  in  1755  ;  was  promoted  rapidly  through 
all  the  lower  grades,  and  placed  in  command  of  the 
frigate  Mercury,  one  of  the  squadron,  co-operating 
with  General  Wolfe  at  Quebec.  His  services  there, 
as  navigator,  pilot  and  soldier,  were  rewarded  b)-  a 
command  of  the  flag-ship  Northwnberland .  His  sur- 
veys of  the  coast  of  Newfout. aland  and  Labrador,  with 
frequent  publications  of  maps  and  charts,  together 
with  a  minute  account  of  his  observations  of  an  eclipse 
of  the  sun,  placed  him  in  the  front  rank,  as  a  man  of 
high  attainments.  In  1768,  he  sailed  in  command  of 
the  Endeavor,  to  observe  the  transit  of  \^enus,  from  a 
position  in  the  .South  Sea,  selecting  Tahiti,  of  the  Soci- 
ety group,  where  he  arrived  April  13th,  1769.  After 
successfully  accomplishing  the  main  object  of  the  voy- 
age, he  set  sail  on  a  general  voyage  of  discovery, 
re-locating  New  Zealand,  taking  possession  of  the  Aus- 
tralian coast,  near  Botany  Bay,  surveying  and  chart- 
ing some  thirteen  hundred  miles  of  coast  line,  and 
establishing  Australia  as  an  island,  as  well  as  its  sepa- 
ration from  Papua.  After  many  adventures  and  es- 
capes, he  returned  to  England  in  June  11,  1771,  having 
sailed  around  the  globe.  In  July  13th,  1772,  he  again 
sailed  in  command  of  the  Resolution,  and  Adventure, 
to  '' circumnaviofate  the  whole  olobe.  in  high  southern 
latitudes,  making  traverses,  from  time  to  time,  into 
every  part  of  the  Pacific  Ocean,  which  had  not  under- 
gone previous  investigation,  and  to  use  his  best  endea- 
vors to  resolve  the  much  agitated  question  of  a  sou- 
thern continent."     In  this  voyage,  he  reached  71  ^^%, 


So6  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

lo  min.  south  latitude,  in  io6  deg.  54  min.  west  longi- 
tude. After  wintering  at  the  Society  Islands,  Cook 
made  some  valuable  surveys  of  the  Pacific,  between 
Easter  Island  and  the  New  Hebrides,  discovering  and 
naming  New  Caledonia,  etc.  He  returned  to  England, 
by  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  July  30th,  1775,  being 
absent  something  over  three  years.  In  1776,  he  vol- 
unteered to  conduct  an  expedition  to  discover  a  north- 
west passage  to  Asia,  which  he  proposed  to  attempt, 
by  way  of  Behring  Strait.  Before  sailing  north,  he 
spent  some  time  in  voyaging  among  the  islands  of  the 
Pacific,  discovering  (it  was  supposed)  the  Sandwich 
Islands,  in  1778.  Sailing  north,  along  the  coast  of 
North  America,  determining  the  most  westerly  portion 
of  that  country,  and  its  distance  from  Asia,  he  reached 
Icy  Cape,  August  17th,  1778,  where  his  further  passage 
was  barred  by  the  ice.  Returning  to  Sandwich  Islands 
to  winter,  with  the  view  of  renewing  the  expedition 
when  the  weather  permitted,  he  discovered  the  islands 
of  Hawaii  and  Maui,  of  the  Sandwich  group.  Having 
lost  one  of  his  small  boats  in  one  of  the  inlets  of  Ha- 
waii, stolen  by  the  natives,  he  landed,  with  a  lieutenant 
and  nine  men,  to  recapture  it — or  one  of  the  chiefs,  as 
hostage  for  its  return ;  a  fight  ensued,  and  Cook,  with 
several  of  his  men,  were  killed,  their  bones  being 
recovered  a  week  afterwards.  That  Cook,  and  the 
men  killed  with  him,  were  devoured  by  the  natives,  is 
uncertain. 

Cavendish,  Sir  Thomas. — Born  in  Suffolk,  Eng- 
land, in  1560;  died  at  sea  in  1592.  His  first  voyage 
was  to  Virginia,  in  1586;  his  second,  was  with  three 
vessels,  passing  the  Straits  of  Magellan  In  1587, 
spending  some  time  in  surveys  of  the  coast  of  South 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  307 

America;  although  the  exjDedition  was  of  piratical 
and  buccaneering-  tendencies,  in  which  Hne  they  made 
quite  a  success,  capturing  several  valuable  Spanish 
vessels  and  burning  and  sacking  the  towns  of  Aca- 
pulco,  Payta,  etc.  Cavendish  then  sailed  across  the 
Pacific  to  the  Ladrone  Islands,  throuo-h  the  Indian 
Archipelago  and  Strait  of  Java,  around  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope,  reaching  England  September  9th,  1588, 
being  the  third,  to  circumnavigate  the  globe ;  was 
knighted  by  Queen  Elizabeth,  and  started  on  another 
voyage  in  1591,  which  he  failed  to  carry  out  on  ac- 
count of  sickness,  mutinous  crews,  and  finally  his 
death,  on  the  homeward  passage. 

Dampier,  William. — Born  in  England  in  1652; 
date  of  death  uncertain.  Sailor,  soldier,  author,  pilot 
and  buccaneer.  Crossed  the  Isthmus  of  Darien  in 
1679,  with  a  party  of  pirates,  capturing  several  towns, 
pillaging  and  laying  them  in  ruins ;  captured  several 
Spanish  vessels  also,  with  which  they  sailed  along  the 
South  American  coast,  robbing  and  des^troying  many 
seaport  towns.  In  1684  he  accompanied  Captain  John 
Cook  on  a  piratical  expedition,  along  the  coast  of 
Chili,  Peru  and  Mexico ;  afterwards  crossed  the  Pa- 
cific Ocean,  cruising  among  the  islands  of  the  In- 
dian Archipelago,  arriving  in  England  in  1691  ;.  pub- 
lished a  book,  his  "Voyage  Around  the  World." 
In  1699,  sailed  from  England  in  command  of  sloop  of 
war,  on  a  voyage  of  discovery  in  the  South  Seas,  ex- 
ploring the  western  coast  of  Australia,  the  coast  of 
New  Guinea,  New  Britain,  New  Ireland  and  the  Mol- 
luccas.  On  returning,  was  wrecked  off  the  island  of 
Ascension,  reaching  England  in  1701.  Followed  the 
sea  up  to    1 711.     He  published  also  "A  Treatise  on. 


3o8  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

Winds  and   Tides,"  and   a  vindication  of  his  voyage 
to  the  South  Sea,  in  the  ship  St.  George,  in  1707. 

Dana,  James  Dwight. — Born  in  Utica,  N.  Y.. 
February  1 2th,  181 3,  An  American  mineralogist  and 
geologist,  and  author,  of  great  abilit}^  In  December. 
1836,  was  appointed  mineralogist  and  geologist  to  the 
American  Exploring  Expedition  to  the  Southern  At- 
lantic and  Pacific  Oceans,  under  Commodore  Wilkes, 
sailing  in  1838,  and  returning  in  1842.  His  re- 
searches into  _  the  island  formations  of  the  South 
Sea,  the  shells,  the  coral,  the  volcanic  formations, 
etc.,  show  erudition  and  patient  research,  with  prac- 
tical observing  powers  seldom  surpassed.  His  works 
and  contributions  to  science  have  been  valuable  and 
voluminous,  being  accepted  authority  in  all  parts  of 
the  civilized  world. 

Darwin,  Charles  Robert. — Born  in  Shrewsbury, 
England,  February  12  th,  1809;  sailed  with  Captain 
Fitzroy,  in  the  Beagle,  in  his  voyage  around -the  world, 
as  naturalist,  in  1831,  returning  in  1836.  During  this 
voyage,  Darwin  examined  the  greater  part  of  the 
South  American  coast ;  many  of  the  Pacific  islands  ; 
New^  Zealand  and  Australia  beinof  visited  and  exam- 
ined,  as  well  as  Mauritius,  in  the  Indian  Ocean.  An 
account  of  the  voyage  was  published  in  1839,  Darwin 
contributing  materially  to  the  scientific  value  of  the 
Avork,  His  works  on  coral  reefs,  volcanic  islands, 
geology,  zoology,  with  many  other  contributions  to  the 
cause  of  science,  were  followed  by  his  "  Descent  of 
Man,"  and  "Selection  in  Relation  to  Sex,"  which 
have  probably  given  him  his  greatest  celebrity,  or 
notoriety. 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  309 

Drake,  Sir  Francis. — Born  in  England,  in  1545  ; 
(by  some  authorities,  in  1539;)  and  died  at  sea,  near 
Puerto  Bello,  December  27th,  1595.  His  first  expedi- 
tion of  any  moment,  was  with  Sir  John  Hawkins,  in 
naval  engagements,  along  the  Atlantic  seaboard,  and 
in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  with  the  Spaniards.  While  in 
Central  America,  like  the  greater  and  better  man,  Bal- 
boa, he  saw  the  waters  of  the  majestic  Pacific,  from  one 
of  the  mountain  peaks  of  the  isthmus,  resolving  to 
make  the  mighty  sea  the  scene  of  his  future  exploits. 
Receiving  a  roving  commission  from  Elizabeth,  in 
1577,  he  sailed  through  the  Magellan  Straits,  pillag- 
ing a  portion  of  the  coasts  of  Chile  and  Peru ;  sailing 
for  North  America,  arriving  at  California,  at  Drake's 
Bay  (now  known  to  be  a  point,  somewhat  different 
from  the  Bay  of  San  Francisco),  where  he  took  pos- 
session of  California,  in  the  name  of  Queen  Elizabeth, 
in  1577.  Having  made  some  valuable  captures  from 
the  Spaniards,  and  fearing  to  return  as  he  came,  he 
attempted  the  northeast  passage  to  the  Atlantic,  but 
was  driven  back  by  the  cold  weather  and  impassable 
fields  of  ice.  Sailing  south,  by  Japan,  the  Phillippines, 
and  throuMi  the  Mollucca  Islands,  and  across  the 
Indian  Ocean,  he  rounded  the  African  cape,  reaching 
England  on  the  3d  of  November,  1580 — the  first  Eng- 
lishman to  circumnavigate  the  globe.  His  success 
met  with  speedy  recognition  by  the  Queen ;  leading, 
finally,  after  many  naval  adventures  on  the  Atlantic,  to 
his  appointment  as  Vice-Admiral,  under  Lord  Howard. 
It  has  been  supposed,  that  Drake  was  the  discoverer 
of  California,  as  well  as  the  Bay  of  San  Francisco. 
Where  he  landed,  was  Point  Reyes — latitude,  t^j  deg. 
59  min.  5  sec.  north.  Cabrillo  is  also  credited  with 
the   discovery,  about    1542;    he  locating  and   naming 


3IO  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

Cape   Mendosa  (now  Mendocino).     Cortez,  in   1536, 
discovered  the  peninsula  and  Gulf  of  California. 

Cortez  (or  Cortes),  Hern  an  (or  Hernando). — 
Born  in  Medellin,  Estramadura,  in  1485,  and  died 
near  Seville,  December  2d,  1554.  His  first  voyage  of 
any  note,  was  to  San  Domingo,  and  from  there,  in 
151 1,  with  Velasquez,  to  Cuba.  He  was  appointed  by 
the  Governor  to  command  an  expedition  to  Mexico, 
to  conquer  and  settle  that  country,  which  Grijalva,  its 
Spanish  discoverer,  had  failed  to  do.  Cortez  sailed 
from  St.  lago  in  15 18,  and  landed  on  the  coast  in  15 19. 
Founding  the  town  of  Vera  Cruz,  he  burned  his  ships, 
and  marched  for  the  interior ;  after  many  hardships 
and  reverses,  he  completely  subdued  and  conquered 
Mexico,  in  the  decisive  battles,  with  the  natives,  of 
1520-21.  History  and  biography  are  so  replete  with 
this  conquest,  as  well  as  of  the  minutest  details  of  the 
life  of  the  great  Spanish  adventurer,  that  but  a  short 
notice  seems  all  that  is  necessary  here.  His  discov- 
eries on  the  Pacific,  the  Gulf  of  California,  and  its 
survey,  the  location  of  the  Peninsula  of  California,  to- 
gether with  several  expeditions  sailing  under  his  pat- 
ronage, entitle  him  to  a  place  among  the  early  navi- 
gators of  the  South  Sea.  His  varying  fortunes  left 
him  to  die,  as  above,  in  solitude  and  despair. 

Fernandez,  Juan. — Navigator,  pilot,  and  discov- 
erer in  the  Pacific.  In  1563,  he  first  sighted  the  island 
now  bearing  his  name  (celebrated  in  the  annals  of 
"Crusoe"),  and  Mas-a-fuera,  afterwards  granted  to 
him  by  the  Spanish  government.  In  1574,  he  discov- 
ered the  islands  of  San  Felix  and  San  Ambrose,  mak- 
ing many  voyages  and   discoveries  in  the  South  Sea, 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  311 

particularly  the  flow  of  the  currents  along  the  coast  of 
South  America.  He  is  credited,  sometimes,  with  being 
one  of  the  early  discoverers  of  New  Zealand  and 
Australia. 

FiTZROY,  Robert. —  Born  in  England,  July  5th, 
1805  ;  died  there,  April  30th,  1865.  Entered  the  navy 
in  1 8 19,  serving  in  the  Mediterranean,  and  at  South 
American  stations;  in  1831,  was  placed  in  command 
of  the  Beagle,  making  a  voyage  around  the  world, 
being  accompanied  by  the  celebrated  Darwin,  as  natu- 
ralist and  geologist  of  the  expedition ;  in  1843,  was 
appointed  governor  and  commander  of  the  colony  of 
New  Zealand,  where  he  served  for  three  years.  He 
was  the  author  of  several  works,  contributing  largely 
to  meteorology,  and  establishing  a  system  of  storm 
warnings  in  1862. 

Franklin,  Sir  John. — Born  in  Lincolnshire,  Eng- 
land, April  1 6th,  1786,  dying  in  the  Arctic  regions,  on 
June  nth.  1847  (as  per  records  discovered  by  McClin- 
tock,  in  his  expedition  to  the  Arctic,  in  1859).  Frank- 
lin served  in  the  English  navy,  as  a  midshipman,  in 
1 80 1,  and  in  1802  accompanied  Captain  Flinders  in  a 
voyage  to  the  South  Sea,  to  survey  the  coasts  of  Aus- 
tralia, occupying  two  years  for  its  accomplishment. 
On  the  return,  they  were  wrecked  off  the  coast  of  Aus- 
tralia, barely  escaping  with  their  lives,  fifty  days  being 
spent  on  a  barren,  sandy  islet,  before  relief  arrived. 
On  his  return  to  England,  served  with  Nelson  at 
Trafalgar,  as  signal  midshipman  to  the  fleet,  in  1805, 
and  afterwards  on  the  American  coast  in  181 2-1 5. 
His  first  Arctic  expedition  was  in  1818,  in  command 
of  the  Trent  with  Captain  Buchan,  of  the  Dorothea, 


^12  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

They  reached  as  high  as  80  deg.  nordi  latitude,  but, 
on  account  of  an  accident  to  Buchan's  ship,  were  forced 
to  return.  In  18 19,  was  in  command  of  an  Arctic 
expedition  overland  from  Hudson  Bay,  and  in  1825 
was  in  command  of  a  similar  expedition,  which  was 
carried  through  with  marked  ability.  Was  knighted 
in  1829,  receiving  honors  from  many  parts  of  the 
world.  Served  in  command  on  the  Mediterranean, 
and  in  1836-43,  was  made  Governor  of  Tasmania,  or 
Van  Diemen's  Land.  In  1845,  was  placed  In  com- 
mand of  an  Arctic  expedition,  to  discover  the  north- 
west passage,  being  his  fourth  visit  to  that  region.  He 
was  last  seen  by  an  American  ship  captain  on  July 
26th,  1845,  ^'^^  his  fate  remained  unknown  up  to 
McClintock's  discovery,  as  above  (1859). 

Humboldt.  Frederick  H.  Alexander,  Baron  von. 
— Born  in  Berlin  September  14th,  1 769  ;  died  May  6th, 
1859.  One  of  the  most  celebrated  men  of  his  day. 
In  the  arts  and  sciences  he  was  far  advanced ;  a  great 
leader  in  astronomy,  finance,  chemistry,  natural  philos- 
<3phy,  mineralogy,  natural  history  and  geography.  He 
was  in  addition,  one  of  the  world's  greatest  travelers, 
making  many  journeys,  overland  and  by  sea.  In  Eu- 
rope, including  many  thousands  of  miles  of  overland 
journeyings  in  Russia,  in  North  and  and  South  Amer- 
ica, on  both  coasts ;  now  in  Brazil,  again  in  Chili  and 
Peru,  surveying  and  marking  out  the  sources  of  the 
Orinoco  and  Amazon  rivers,  or  climbing  the  great  peaks 
of  Chimborazo  and  Pichincha.  Always  energetic,  in- 
domitable and  untiring,  his  many  intellectual  attain- 
ments opened  nature's  secrets  to  him,  which  he  read, 
as  from  a  great  book.  Again  in  Mexico,  and  then  in 
the  United  States,  establishing  the  accepted  theory  of 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  313 

the  great  volcanic  fire-belt,  marking  out  the  earth's 
surface  in  isothermal  lines,  so  as  to  compare  the 
world's  varying  climatic  conditions,  nothing  escaped 
his  wonderful  observing  powers,  or  was  misapplied  or 
mislaid  in  the  vast  storehouse  of  his  wonderful  mem- 
ory. Crowning  his  life  with  that  great  work  "Kos- 
mos,"  he  died  full  of  days,  honored  and  regretted  all 
over  the  world. 

Magellan,  Fernando. — Born  at  Oporto,  Portu- 
gal in  1470,  and  killed  at  Mactan,  a  small  island  in  the 
Phillippine  group,  April  27th,  152 1.  He  made  sev- 
eral voyages  from  Portugal  to  India,  and  the  islands 
of  the  Eastern  Archipelago.  On  August  loth,  15 19, 
an  expedition  from  Spain  sailed  under  command  of 
Magellan,  to  reach  the  Spice  Islands  by  a  western 
route.  It  is  supposed  by  many  authorities  that  Ma- 
gellan, in  the  course  of  his  maritime  career,  had  met 
with  an  old  map  of  South  America,  delineating  a 
route  across  its  southern  portion,  of  which  he  availed 
himself  in  his  voyage.  His  first  attempt  was  by  way 
of  the  Rio  Plata.  Failing  in  this,  he  skirted  the  shore 
until  the  ocean  cut-off  was  reached  and  passed,  in  the 
latter  part  of  1520,  naming  Tierra  del  Fuego,  and 
from  the  smooth  waters  first  met  with  on  the  great 
ocean — the  Pacific.  Sailing  north,  he  crossed  the  line 
on  February  13th,  1521,  reaching  the  Ladrones  and 
Phillippines  in  March  of  that  year.  His  great  desire 
for  the  relio-ious  advancement  of  the  natives  at  Mac- 
tan,  where  he  insisted  on  baptising  one  of  the  chiefs 
and  his  followers,  terminating  in  a  quarrel,  resulted 
in  the  death  of  Maofellan.  The  remainder  of  the  ex- 
pedition,  under  Caraballo,  sailed  for  the  Spice  Islands, 
touching  at  Borneo  and  other  islands  of  the  Archi- 


3^4 


THE  ISLAND  WORLD 


pelago;  finally,  making  a  station  at  one  of  the  Mol- 
luccas.  Here,  one  of  the  vessels,  Victoria,  was  put 
in  repair,  provisioned  and  placed  under  command  of 
Sebastian  del  Cano  (Magellan's  pilot),  who  continued 
the  voyage,  reaching  Spain  in  1522,  after  an  absence 
of  nearly  three  years.  This  is  the  first  circumnaviga- 
tion of  the  globe  of  which  there  is  authentic  record. 

KoTZEBUE,  Otto  von. — Born  in  1787,  and  died 
in  1846.  First  sailed  with  the  Russian  Admiral  Kru- 
senstern  around  the  world.  He  made  his  second  voy- 
age in  command  in  181 5,  for  explorations  in  the 
Arctic  and  Pacific  Oceans.  Many  islands  were  vis- 
ited, and  some  discoveries  made,  returning  in  181 8. 
In  1823  he  again  sailed  in  command,  visiting  many 
of  the  more  important  island  groups  in  the  Pacific 
and  i"he  Russian  settlements  in  Kamptchatka,  and 
returning  to  Cronstadt  in  1826.  This  latter  voyage 
was  one  of  vast  importance,  many  corrections  being 
made  in  the  latitudes  and  longitudes  of  places,  as 
well  as  additions  to  the  botanical  knowledge  of  the 
world,  with  much  that  threw  light  on  the  History  of 
people  of  the  countries  visited. 

Krusenstern,  Adam  J. — Russian  navigator  and 
admiral.  Born  in  Esthonia,  November,  1770,  and 
died  at  Revel,  August  24th,  1846.  Served  as  mid- 
shipman in  the  war  with  Sweden,  and  afterwards  with 
the  English  fleet,  visiting  America,  China  and  India ; 
sailed  in  command  for  Russia  in  1803,  with  a  view  to 
extend  and  create  commerce  with  the  Asiatic  coun- 
tries, particularly  China  and  Japan,  returning  in  1806; 
he  voyaged  by  way  of  Cape  Horn,  and  returned  by 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  this  being  the  first  Russian 
expedition  to  sail  around  the  world. 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  ji^ 

Perry,  Matthew  Calbraith. — Born  in  Kingston, 
R.  I.,  in  1795,  and  died  in  New  York  in  1858.  Served 
in  U.  S.  Navy  as  midshipman  as  early  as  1809;  was 
under  Commodores  Rodgers  and  Decatur ;  was  made 
captain  in  1837,  and  in  command  of  the  squadron  on 
the  coast  of  Africa,  and  of  the  fleet  in  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico,  during  the  Mexican  war.  In  1852  he  sailed 
in  command  of  the  expedition  to  Japan,  where  he 
distinguished  himself  in  accomplishing  an  important 
treaty  with  that  country  in  1854. 

PiZARRO,  Francisco. — Born  in  Spain  in  1471,  and 
was  killed  in  a  quarrel  at  Lima,  Peru,  June  26th, 
1 541.  Was  conqueror  of  Peru  and  ^  the  founder  of 
Lima;  served  with  Ojeda,  Balboa,  and  afterwards 
under  Pedrarias,  governor  of  Darien ;  he  made  sev- 
eral expeditions  along  the  coast  of  South  America, 
but  with  no  important  results,  except  the  knowledge 
he  gained  of  the  wealth  and  fertility  of  Peru.  It  was 
not  until  1531,  under  commission  from  Charles  V.  of 
Spain,  when  he  sailed  for  Peru,  that  he  finally  succeeded 
in  the  conquest  of  that  country.  He  had  considerable 
ability  as  a  soldier,  and  was  skillful  as  a  navigator, 
although  his  voyages  and  discoveries  were  few  and 
unimportant.  His  first  knowledge  of  Peru,  with  the 
conquest  of  the  land  of  the  Incas,  are  elaborately  de- 
tailed, in  history  and  biography. 

La  Perouse,  Jean  F.  de  Galaup. — A  French  nav- 
gator;  born  August  22d,  1741,  in  France;  died  (sup- 
posed) at  the  island  of  Vanikoro,  one  of  the  Santa 
Cruz  group.  South  Pacific,  in  1788  or  1789.  Entered 
the  French  navy  at  an  early  age,  serving  with  varying 
fortunes  against  the  English,  and  subsequently  in  the 


3i6  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

American  War  of  Independence.  Under  Louis  VI., 
he  fitted  out  the  two  frigates,  Astrolabe  and  Boussole^ 
and  sailed  for  the  Pacific  August  ist,  1785,  by  way  of 
Cape  Horn.  He  explored  the  North  American  coast, 
from  Mount  St.  Elias,  Alaska,  as  far  south  as  Mon- 
terey, sailing  thence  for  Asia.  In  1787  he  partially 
surv^eyed  the  channels  among  the  Phillippines,  the 
China  Sea,  Japan,  to  the  Russian  possessions  in  the 
north,  sending  his  charts,  journals  and  observations 
to  France.  In  the  latter  part  of  the  same  year,  he 
sailed  for  the  South  Sea,  touching  at  Maouna,  one 
of  the  Samoa  Islands,  losing  the  commander  of  the 
Astrolabe  and  many  men  in  a  conflict  with  the  na- 
tives. From  here  he  sailed  for  Botany  Bay.  Aus- 
tralia, where  he  forwarded  an  account  of  his  voyages 
and  discoveries  to  the  French  minister,  also  explain- 
ing and  mapping  out  his  intentions  for  the  future — 
dated  at  Botany  Bay,  February  7th,  1788.  This 
was  the  last  communication  ever  received  from  the 
French  admiral,  his  fate  remaining  a  mystery  to-day. 
In  1 79 1  a  French  squadron,  under  Admiral  D'Entre- 
casteaux,  sailed  in  search  of  the  missing  navigator, 
but  failed  in  making  any  discoveries.  D'Urville,  who 
was  at  Hobart  Town  in  1828,  learned  through  informa- 
tion brought  by  an  American  ship  captain,  of  the  re- 
mains of  wrecks  existins"  at  Vanikoro  Island.  His 
researches  brougrht  to  liofht  the  fact  that  Perouse's 
vessels  had  been  wrecked  on  the  reefs,  and  those  of 
ais  crew  who  had  not  been  drowned  or  murdered  by 
the  inhabitants,  succeeded  in  building  a  small  vessel 
from  the  wreck,  and  sailed  for  parts  unknown.  The 
anchors  and  cannons  found  at  Vanikoro,  afterwards 
taken  to  France,  fully  attest  the  unfortunate  ending  of 
the  noble  admiral's  voyage. 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCFAN  317 

Polo,  Marco. — A  Venetian,  sailor,  author  and 
traveler;  born  about  1254,  and  died  in  1324.  In  127 1 
Polo  started  with  his  father  (Nicolo  Polo,  and  Maffeo 
his  uncle)  on  an  overland  tour  of  China  and  other 
countries  of  Asia,  where  many  years  of  his  lite  was 
spent  in  mercantile  and  other  pursuits,  as  well  as 
frequent  journeyings  throughout  the  Asiatic  world 
located  south  of  Russia.  Before  terminating  his 
travels,  one  of  the  great  desires  of  a  busy  life,  was 
to  continue  his  explorations  by  sea,  which  was  gratified 
by  his  voyage  to  Japan,  called  in  his  day  Zipangii. 
His  return  to  his  native  land  was  by  way  of  the  Phil- 
lippine,  Spice  and  the  islands  of  Java,  Sumatra.  Bor- 
neo, Ceylon,  Madagascar,  etc.,  and  some  points  on 
the  east  coast  of  Africa,  thence  back  by  way  of  the 
Arabian  Sea,  the  Persian  Gulf,  and  landing  in  Persia. 
The  journey  was  continued  overland  to  the  Black  Sea, 
where  a  vessel  was  obtained  to  conve)^  them  to 
Venice,  arriving  there  in  1295.  Polo's  account  of 
his  voyages  and  experiences  were  received  with  gen- 
eral derision  and  doubt,  although  the  full  particulars 
of  his  adventures  were  not  finished  and  published 
till  1298.  His  work  was  dictated  to  a  fellow  prisoner 
in  Genoa,  where  Marco  was  held  in  durance  for  sev- 
eral years  by  the  Genoese,  as  a  prisoner  of  war,  hav- 
ing served  with  the  Venetians  in  an  expedition  against 
that  country.  Polo's  work  was  regarded  as  a  well 
concocted  fable,  and  the  slow  processes  of  time,  with 
gradual  discoveries  being  made  by  sea  and  land,  were 
necessary  to  prove  the  truth  of  his  statements.  His 
accounts  of  Cathay,  Zipangu,  the  islands,  the  spices, 
silks  and  precious  stones,  met  with  in  his  wanderings, 
were  received  with  grave  deprecation  and  doubt, 
which  the  practical  evidences  of  wealth  brought  back 


3i8  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

with  him  could  not  shake.  True,  many  of  the  things 
related  by  him  were  painted  with  collateral  writing 
that  came  from  tradition,  much  as  we  see  in  many 
publications  of  the  present  time.  Probably  a  better 
idea  of  the  meaning  I  wish  to  convey  would  be  had 
by  an  example  of  his  writings  (one  evidently  colored, 
the  other  as  near  the  truth  as  limited  knowlege  would 
permit),  taken  from  Murray's  edition  of  "The  travels 
of  Marco  Polo,"  published  in  1858.  He  (Polo)  says: 
Having  described  so  many  inland  provinces,  I  will 
now  enter  upon  India,  with  the  wonderful  objects  in 
that  region.  The  ships  in  which  the  merchants  navi- 
gate thither  are  made  of  fir,  with  only  one  deck,  but 
many  of  them  are  divided  beneath  into  sixty  compart- 
ments, in  each  of  which  a  person  can  be  conveniently 
accommodated.  They  have  one  rudder  and  four  masts, 
while  some  have  two  additional,  which  can  be  put  up 
and  taken  down  at  pleasure.  Many  of  the  largest 
have  besides  as  many  as  thirteen  divisions  in  the  hold, 
formed  of  thick  planks  mortised  into  each  other. 
The  object  is  to  guard  against  accidents,  wjiich  may 
cause  the  vessel  to  spring  a  leak,  such  as  striking  on 
a  rock  or  being  attacked  by  a  whale.  This  last  cir- 
cumstance is  not  unusual,  for  during  the  night  the 
motion  of  the  ship  through  the  waves  raises  a  foam 
that  invites  the  hungry  animal,  which,  hoping  to  find 
food,  rushes  violently  against  the  hull,  and  often  forces 
in  part  of  the  bottom.  The  water  entering  by  the  leak 
runs  on  to  the  well,  which  is  always  kept  clear,  and 
the  crew,  on  perceiving  the  occurrence,  remove  the 
goods  from  the  inundated  division,  and  the  boards  are 
so  tight  that  it  cannot  pass  to  any  other.  They  then 
repair  the  injury  and  replace  the  articles.  Again 
in  describing  Japan  and  the  myriads  of  islands  of  that 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  jig 

country,  together  with  the  Phlllippine  group  and  the 
Archipelago  of  Chusan,  he  says:  You  must  know 
that  the  gulf  containing  this  island  (one  of  the  large 
islands  of  Japan)  is  called  that  of  Zin,  meaning,  in 
their  language,  the  sea  opposite  to  Manji.  Accord- 
ing- to  skillful  and  intellipfent  mariners  who  have  made 
the  voyage,  it  contains  7,448  isles,  mostly  inhabited. 
In  all  these  there  grows  no  tree  which  is  not  agreea- 
bly fragrant  and  also  useful,  being  equal  or  superior  in 
size  to  the  lignum  aloes.  They  produce  also  many  and 
various  spices,  including  pepper,  white  like  snow,  as 
well  as  the  black.  They  yield  also  much  gold,  and 
various  other  wonderful  and  costly  productions,  but 
they  are  very  distant  and  difficult  to  reach.'''  The 
mariners  of  Zai-tun  and  Kin-sai,  who  visit  them,  gain 
indeed  great  profits ;  but  they  spend  a  year  on  the 
voyage,  going  in  winter  and  returning  in  summer, 
for  the  wind  in  these  seasons  blows  from  only  two 
different  quarters,  one  of  which  carries  them  thither 
and  the  other  brings  them  back.-|-  But  ihis  country 
is  immensely  distant  from  India.  You  may  observe, 
too  that  though  they  be  called  Zin,  it  is  really  the 
ocean,  just  as  we  say  the  sea  of  England,  the  sea 
of  Rochelle.     The  Great  Khan   has    no    power  over 


(*  The  number  of  islands  stated  is  doubtless  fanciful  and  exag- 
gerated ;  yet  when  we  consider  the  various  groups  composing  the  Ori- 
ental Archipelago,  many  consisting  of  numerous  islets,  the  whole 
amount  must  be  very  great.  They  are,  as  we  have  justly  noticed,  pro- 
ductive beyond  any  other  part  of  the  world  in  aromatic  and  odoriferous 
plants,  also  very  rich  in  gold. — Murray,  p.  243.) 

(t  The  distance  would  not  be  very  formidable  to  a  British  mariner, 
but  is  otherwise  to  the  ruder  Chinese  navigator  ;  while  this  sea,  too,,  is 
tempestuous  and  dangerous.  The  junks  still  perform  only  one  voyage 
in  the  year,  and  as  here  correctly  stated,  sail  in  the  winter,  with  the 
northeast  monsoon,  and  return  in  summer  with  the  southwest  one. — 
Marsdcn,  p.  582. ) 


S20  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

these  islands.  Now  let  us  return  to  Zai-tun,  and  re- 
sume our  narrative.  In  truth,  Polo  so  rounded  up 
his  narrative  of  travels  and  voyages,  with  the  varied 
traditions  and  fireside  tales  of  the  countries  he  vis- 
ited (as  his  story  of  the  "Griffin,"  the  "Old  Man  of 
the  Mountain,"  and  "the  birds  carrying  out  the  dia- 
monds, adhering  to  pieces  of  flesh  thrown  in  the 
valley  of  Golconda"),  that  the  many  truths  he  re- 
lated seemed  but  a  part  of  the  fiction.  Yet  in 
geography,  history,  chronology,  the  manners  and  cus- 
toms of  the  people  met  with,  he  is  in  the  main, 
correct.  The  grand  results  that  may  be  said  to  have 
sprung  from  the  travels  and  voyages  of  the  wander- 
ing Venetian — the  voyages  of  Columbus,  Cabot,  Ves- 
pucci, da  Gama,  and  many  other  noted  navigators — 
grew  out  of  the  writings  of  Polo.  Of  Columbus  it 
is  truly  said,  his  aims  were  nothing  less  than  the  dis- 
covery of  the  marvelous  province  of  Cipango,  and 
the  conversion  to  Christianity  of  the  Grand  Khan,  to 
whom  he  received  a  royal  letter  of  introduction. 
The  main  object  of  Columbus,  his  dreams  ^nd  the- 
ories alike  urgfino-  him  on,  was  to  reach  the  land  of 
gold,  spices,  silks  and  precious  stones,  by  a  west- 
ern route,  to  find  the  land  of  Marco  Polo — Cipangii. 
If  we  glance  back  fully  six  hundred  years,  and  mark 
the  course  of  the  daring  Venetian,  or  if  we  look 
around  at  the  majestic  grandeur  of  the  New  World, 
and  credit  him  with  but  a  portion  of  the  results,  the 
voyages  of  later  discoverers,  we  should  accord  him 
the  first  page  in  the  history  of  modern  times. 

OuiROS,  Pedro  Fernando  de. — A  celebrated  Por- 
tuguese navigator,  born  in  Elvere,  Atlentejo,  in  1560, 
and  died  in  Panama,  in  161 4.     In  1595,  joined  the  expe- 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  j2i 

dition  of  Alvaro  Mendana,  sailing  from  the  New  World, 
,  as  navigator.     Mendana  had  under  him  four  vessels 
and  four  hundred  men,  it  being  his  design  to  visit  and 
colonize  the  Solomon  Islands,  discovered  by  him  in  a 
previous  voyage,  in  1567.     In  their  voyage  across  the 
Pacific,  he  found,  in  addition  to  the  discovery  of  some 
smaller  islands,  the  group  named   by  him   Marquesas, 
in  honor  of  the  wife   of  Mendoza.      Sailino"  from   this 
cluster,  they  were  caught  in  a  tempest,   damaging  the 
fleet,  and  resulting  in  the  loss  of  the  admiral's  vessel. 
Discouraged   and  disheartened  at   this  misfortune,  the 
crews  mutinied,  forcing  Mendana  to  sacrifice  many  of 
the  lives  of  his  men  and  officers,  and  through  remorse 
and    regret,    dying    himself,    September    17th,    1595. 
Quiros   now  took   command  of  the    expedition,   and, 
after  discovering   many   populous   and   fertile  islands, 
proceeded    to   Manila,   reaching   that   port,   February 
nth,  1596,  with   the   squadron    in    a   dilapidated  and 
sinking  condition.     From  Manila,  Quiros  returned  to 
Mexico,  and   then  to  Peru,  with  a  view  to   raisino-  an- 
other  expedition,  to  follow  up  the  discoveries  of  Men- 
dana and  himself      Failing  in  this,  he  sailed  for  Spain, 
where  his  representations  to  Philip  III,  with  the  desire 
to  discover  the  great  Austral  continent  (Quiros  prob- 
ably being  the  first  to  represent  its  existence),  resulted 
in  his  return  to  Peru,  authorized  to  equip  two  vessels 
and    a    corvette.     This  being  accomplished,   he  sailed 
from  Callao,  in  command,  with  Louis  de  Vaes  de  Torres 
as  second,  December  21st,  1605.     During  the  voyao-e, 
many  islands  were  discovered,  the  Society  group  being 
among  them,  and  getting   a  glimpse  of  what   he  sup- 
posed to  be  Australia,  but  afterwards  proved  to  be  the 
New  Hebrides  Islands.    During  a  violent  storm.  Quiros 
and  Torres  became  separated;  the  former  returning  to 


S22  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

Mexico  in  1606,  while  the  latter  continued  his  voyage 
of  discovery,  to  the  north  and  west.     In  his  voyage, 
north,  Torres  discovered  the  straits  that  bear  his  name, 
and  skirted  the  coast  of  New  Guinea  for  eight  hundred 
leagues. 

Quiros  still  had  a  desire  to  discover  and  see  the 
unknown  land  (Australia),  and  made  another  trip  to 
Spain,  to  enlist  royal  favor  in  a  new  expedition.  Fail- 
ing in  this,  he  returned  to  Panama,  where  his  life  passed 
away  in  futile  efforts  to  accomplish  dreams  of  new  dis- 
coveries and  conquests  in  the  South  Sea.  The  last  of 
that  coterie  of  daring  soldiers  and  navigators  of  the 
sixteenth  century,  his  life  ebbed  away  within  sight  and 
sound  of  the  surf  waves  of  the  Pacific.  The  memoirs 
of  Quiros,  addressed  to  Philip  III,  published  in 
Seville  in  16 10,  clearly  depict  the  type  of  men,  who 
gave  Spain  her  former  wealth  and  glory  in  the  New 
World. 

Rogers,  Woods. — English  navigator ;  in  the  Royal 
Navy  in  1 708,  and  sailed  in  command  on  -a  voyage 
around  the  world,  from  Cork  Harbor,  Septem'ber  ist, 
1708.  After  rounding  Cape  Horn,  Rogers  sighted, 
and  made  a  landing  at,  the  island  of  Juan  Fernandez, 
January  31st,  1709.  Captain  Rogers  relates:  Our 
yawl,  which  we  had  sent  ashore,  did  not  return  as  soon 
as  we  expected ;  so  we  sent  our  pinnace  (armed)  to 
see  the  occasion  of  her  stay.  The  pinnace  returned 
immediately  from  the  shore,  and  brought  abundance 
of  craw-fish,  with  a  man  clothed  in  goat-skins,  who 
looked  more  wild  than  the  first  owners  of  them.  He 
liad  been  on  the  island  four  years  and  four  months ; 
liis  name  was  Alexander  Selkirk,  a  Scotchman,  who 
had  been   master  of  the  Cinque  Ports  Galley,  a  ship 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  323 

which  came  here  with  Captain  Dampier,  who  told  me 
that  this  was  the  best  man  in  her;  so  I  immediately 
agreed  with  him  to  be  mate  on  board  our  ship.  It  was 
he  that  made  the  fire  last  night,  judging  our  ships  to 
be  Enoflish. 

Rogers  continued  his  voyage  from  Juan  Fernan- 
dez, by  way  of  Guayaquil,  the  Galapagos,  and  the 
North  American  coast,  making  several  valuable  cap- 
tures of  Spanish  galleons.  From  California,  the  expe- 
dition sailed  across  the  Pacific  to  the  Phillippines,  and 
through  the  Molluccas,  anchoring  at  Batavia.  From 
thence,  across  the  Indian  Ocean,  around  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope,  reaching  the  Thames,  October  14th,  171 1. 
Captain  Rogers  wrote  an  account  of  his  voyage  around 
the  world,  of  which  he  says:  This  voyage  being  only 
designed  for  cruising  on  the  enemy,  it  is  not  reason- 
able to  expect  such  accounts  in  it,  as  are  to  be  met 
with  in' books  of  travels  relating  to  history,  geography, 
and  the  like.  Something  of  that,  however,  I  have  in- 
serted, to  oblige  the  booksellers,  who  persuaded  me 
that  this  would  make  it  more  grateful  to  some  sort  of 
readers.     He  died  in  1732. 

Saavedra,  Ai.varo  or  Alonzo  de. — Was  born 
about  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century.  A  rela- 
tive of  Hernando  Cortez,  whom  he  accompanied  to 
Mexico,  he  was  alike  a  daring  soldier  and  experienced 
navigator.  Was  sent  in  command  of  a  small  squad- 
ron, by  Cortez,  in  1526,  for  minor  explorations  in  the 
South  Sea,  and  afterwards  ordered  by  Spain  to  cross 
the  Pacific  to  the  Spice  Islands,  on  a  voyage  of  discov- 
ery. Although  the  main  object  assigned,  was  the  relief 
of  Garcia  de  Loaisa,  who  had  sailed  from  Corunna,  in 
the  track  of  Magellan,  in  1525.    He  made  some  impor- 


324  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

tant  discoveries  and  observations  during  die  voyage, 
adding  much  to  the  knowledge,  slowly  accumulating, 
in  reo-ard  to  the  Pacific.  Saavedra  went  down,  with 
his  vessel,  in  a  hurricane,  on  the  equator. 

As  something  has  already  been  said  of  Saavedra, 
in  different  parts  of  this  work,  briefly  giving  an  insight 
into  his  daring  character,  it  would  be  but  a  repetition 
to  recall  it  here. 

In  1529,  Saavedra,  returning  towards  New  Spain, 
had  sight  of  land  in  two  degrees  south,  and  ran  along 
it  above  five  hundred  leagues,  w4ien  he  saw  people  of 
black,  curled  hair,  called  Papua;  but,  having  sailed 
four  or  five  degrees  to  the  south,  he  returned  toward 
the  north,  and  discovered  an  isle,  which  he  called  the 
Isle  of  Painted  People.  And  a  little  beyond  it,  in  ten 
or  twelve  degrees,  he  found  many  low,  small  isles,  full 
of  palm  trees  and  grass,  which  he  called  los  jardmes. 
The  natives  wear  white  cloth,  made  of  grass ;  never 
saw  fire ;  eat  cocoas  and  fish,  and  dig  boats  with  shells. 
Saavedra,  perceiving  the  weather  to  be  good,  sailed 
towards  the  firm  land  and  city  of  Panama,"  there  to 
unload  the  cloves  and  merchandise  he  had,  which  might 
be  carried  in  carts  four  leagues,  to  the  River  Chagres, 
which  is  said  to  be  navigable  into  the  North  Sea,  not 
far  from  No7}ibre  de  Dios;  by  which  all  goods  might  be 
brought  a  shorter  way  than  round  about  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope. 

(John  Harris:  Collection  of  Voyages  and  Travels.  London,  1705. 
Page  272.) 

ScHOUTEN,  William  Cornelius. — A  celebrated 
Dutch  navigator,  who  died  in  1625.  He  was  the  dis- 
coverer of  the  Schouten  Islands,  rediscovered  by  Car- 
teret,  who   named    them    Admiralty.      His    principal 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  325 

voyage  was  in  161 5,  in  command  of  the  Concordia.  An 
account  of  his  expedition  and  adventures,  in  company 
with  the  intrepid  Lemaire,  was  pubHshed  in  Amster- 
dam, in  1617. 

ScHOUTEN,  Gautier. — A  Dutch  navigator,  who 
died  in  1680.  He  was  in  the  service  of  the  Dutch 
East  India  Company,  cruising  principally  among  the 
islands  of  the  East  Indian  Archipelago.  A  man  of  rare 
ability  in  his  day,  with  a  practical  knowledge  of  the 
waters  and  islands  of  Western  Oceanica,  that  served 
materially  in  establishing  the  foothold  obtained  by  the 
Dutch  in  the  Pacific.  He  published  an  account  of  his 
voyages,  at  Amsterdam,  in  1676. 

Tasman,  Abel  Jansen. — Was  born  about  1600; 
time  and  manner  of  his  death  unknown.  In  the  early 
part  of  his  career,  he  served  with  the  Dutch  East  India 
Company,  in  Japanese  and  Chinese  waters,  and  later 
on,  as  a  cruiser  among  the  islands.  In  1642,  he  was 
employed  by  the  governor  of  the  above  company,  to 
command  in  a  voyage  of  discovery  to  the  south  of  the 
line,  and  to  ascertain  the  extent,  if  possible,  of  Aus- 
tralia, then  known  as  New  Holland.  On  the  24th  of 
November,  in  the  above  year,  he  discovered  the  island 
of  Tasmania,  naming  it  Van  Diemen's  Land.  The 
voyage,  which  occupied  ten  months,  was  one  of  some 
importance,  as  Tasman  discovered  New  Zealand,  the 
Fiji  and  Friendly  groups,  besides  obtaining  much  val- 
uable data  in  regard  to  Australia  and  New  Guinea. 
He  made  a  second  voyage  in  1644,  with  the  intention 
of  circumnavio^atinnf  New  Guinea  and  New  Flolland, 
of  which  there  is  no  authentic  data. 


S^6  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

Vancouver.  George. — Born  in  England  in  1758  ; 
died  there,  May  loth,  1798.  First  sailed  with  Captain 
James  Cook,  in  his  second  and  third  voyages ;  was  made 
lieutenant,  and  served  for  some  years  in  the  West  Indies. 
His  fourth  voyage  was  made  in  command  in  1791,  to  the 
British  possessions  in  Western  North  America,  which 
he  reached,  after  touching  at  the  Sandwich  Islands,  in 
1792,  when  he  took  possession  of  Vancouver  Island, 
and  made  many  valuable  charts  from  his  surveys  of 
the  northern  coasts,  as  well  as  the  settlement  of  some 
complications  that  had  sprung  up,  in  regard  to  Van- 
couver Island.  During  his  surveys  of  the  northern 
coast,  his  winters  were  spent  in  the  Sandwich  Islands. 
Returned  to  England  in  1795,  sur\'eyed  and  made 
many  valuable  notes  of  the  west  coast  of  South  Ame- 
rica, on  his  way  back. 

Wilkes.  Charles. — Bom  in  New  York  in  1801  ; 
ser\-ed  as  midshipman  in  the  U.  S.  Na\y.  in  the  Medit- 
erranean, in  I  Si  6,  and  on  the  Pacific  in  182 1-3.  On 
August  iSth.  1838,  sailed  in  command  of  a  United 
States  exploring  expedition,  to  the  South  Atlaiitic  and 
Pacific  Oceans,  with  five  vessels  and  one  store  ship, 
visiting,  surveying  and  exploring  many  islands -of  the 
Pacific  and  with  the  many  scientific  men  under  him, 
making  a  \^luable  record,  and  important  discov- 
eries in  both  oceans.  In  1840.  the  squadron  arrived 
at  the  Fiji  Islands  and  the  Hawaiian  group,  where  the 
scientific  obser\-ations,  maps  and  charts  made,  have 
contributed  a  great  deal  to  a  correct  knowledge  of  the 
Pacific.  In  1S41.  sailed  to  the  northwest  coast  of 
America,  partially  exploring  the  Columbia  and  Sacra- 
mento Rivers,  and  the  Bay  of  San  Francisco.  In  the 
same  year,  sailed  from   the  latter  harbor,  visiting  the 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  327 

Phillippines,  Borneo,  the  Molluccas,  Singapore,  etc., 
crossing  the  Indian  Ocean,  rounding  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  calHng  at  the  island  of  St.  Helena,  and  other 
points  of  interest  in  the  Atlantic ;  reaching  New  York, 
January  loth,  1842.  Wilkes  was  the  author  of  many 
important  works,  while  the  voluminous  records  kept 
of  the  expedition,  and  published  by  our  Government, 
contain  an  immense  amount  of  valuable  information. 
Wilkes  took  part  in  the  United  States  Civil  War,  serv- 
inp-  with  marked  ability-,  and  was  created  rear-admiral 
on  the  retired  list,  July  25th,  1866. 


328  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 


CHAPTER   XX. 


ISI^AND    I»IISCEL,t,ABJY,    A.TSTi    DCPXHS    OK    XHK    SEA. 


Skill'd  in  the  globe  and  sphere,  he  gravely  stands. 
And,  with  his  compass,  measures  seas  and  lands. 

Dryden  {Sixth  Satire  of  Juvenal). 

THERE  are  many  points  of  interest  to  be  glanced 
at,  still,  on   the  Pacific  Ocean,  a  few  of  which  I 
note   below,  before   concluding  with  the  depths 
of  the  sea. 

NORFOLK    ISLAND. 

This  island,  located  in  latitude  28  deg.  58  min. 
south,  and  longitude  167  deg.  46  min.  east,  something 
over  one  thousand  miles  northeast  from  Sydney,  has  a 
population,  at  present,  of  not  over  five  hundred  peo- 
ple, and  an  area  of  about  fifteen  square  miles.  It  is 
the  principal  of  a  group  of  small  islets,  known  as  the 
Bird  Islands.  It  is  put  down  as  one  of  Cook's  discov- 
eries, in  1774.  The  surface  is  extremely  rugged, 
standing  high  above  the  ocean  level.  In  fact,  so  pre- 
cipitous are  its  sides,  that  but  two  landing  places  are 
to  be  found,  indenting-  the  shores,  and  these  danger- 
ous,  from  the  baffling  currents  and  heavy  surf  A 
portion  of  the  lands,  back  from  the  coast,  is  ver^^  fer- 
tile, nearly  all  the  products  of  tropical  and  temperate 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  329 

regions  growing  luxuriantly.  The  island  was  not 
made  a  point  of  interest  till  1787.  when  it  was  settled 
by  convicts  and  ticket-of-leave  men  from  /Vustralia. 
In  1825,  it  was  made  a  penal  colony  by  that  country-, 
but  finally  abandoned  in  1855.  It  was  granted  to  the 
descendants  of  the  Bounty  mutineers,  in  1857.  A  part 
of  their  number  (about  one  hundred)  became  dissatis- 
fied, and  returned  to  Pitcairn.  I  am  told  that,  on  some 
parts  of  the  island,  there  is  a  perfect  network  of  under- 
ground workings,  such  as  tunnels,  shafts,  etc.,  made 
by  the  prisoners,  more  to  occupy  the  time  of  a  horrible 
existence,  than  for  any  other  purpose. 

THE    CHATAM    GROUP. 

Between  latitudes  43  deg.  30  min,,  and  45  deg.  20 
min.  south,  and  longitudes  176  deg.  10  min.,  and  177 
deg.  20  min.  west — about  six  hundred  miles  to  the 
east  of  New  Zealand,  and  under  the  same  rule,  are  the 
Chatam  Islands.  There  are  fifteen  in  the  group,  if  we 
count  the  islets,  with  an  area  of  about  eight  hundred 
square  miles,  and  a  population  not  exceeding  five  hun- 
dred. Chatam,  Southeast  and  Pitt,  are  of  some  impor- 
tance, growing  all  the  products  of  temperate  climes, 
when  properly  cultivated. 

Throuofh  wars  with  the  Maoris  of  New  Zealand, 
the  inhabitants  have  almost  disappeared,  and  agriculture 
neglected,  leaving  little  to  be  found  of  interest,  outside 
of  the  bleak  comforts  of  a  South  Sea  whaling  station. 

The  o-eolocjical  formation  is  that  of  New  Zealand  ; 
the  soil  very  fertile,  but  without  the  extensive  floral 
growth  of  the  former.  Some  curious  lakes  and  lagoons, 
of  brackish  water,  are  found  here — often  many  miles 
in  extent,  and  separated  from  the  sea,  at  some  points, 


330  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

by  barriers  of  sand,  but  a  few  hundred  yards  in  width. 
Innumerable  aquatic  birds  make  of  these  a  favorite 
resort.  Whaling,  and  other  fisheries,  form  the  princi- 
pal interest  of  the  group  at  present.  The  islands  were 
discovered  in  1791,  by  Lieutenant  Broughton,  who 
named  them  after  the  vessel  he  commanded. 


PONAPE    OR    ASCENSION    ISLAND. 

This,  the  principal  of  a  group  of  the  eastern  Car- 
olines (already  briefly  alluded  to),  lies  within  latitude 
6  deg.  43  min.  north,  and  longitude  158,  and  158  deg. 
30  min.  east.  In  addition  to  its  being  one  of  the  prin- 
cipal stations  of  the  Congregational  Missions  in  the 
South  Sea,  considerable  interest  has  been  attached  to 
the  island,  from  the  remains  of  ancient  ruins,  and  other 
evidences  of  a  former  civilization,  being  found  there. 
Of  these.  Captain  Cheyne  says: 

Near  Metalanien  Harbor  are  some  interesting 
ruins,  which  are,  however,  involved  in  obscurity ;  the 
oldest  inhabitants  being  ignorant  of  their  origin,  and 
having  no  tradition  bearing  any  reference  to  their  his- 
tory. That  a  fortified  town  once  stood  upon  this  spot, 
and  not  built  by  savages,  cannot  be  doubted ;  the  style 
of  the  ruins  giving  strong  proofs  of  civilization.  Some 
of  the  stones  measure  eifjht  to  ten  feet  in  lenofth,  are 
squared  on  six  sides,  and  have  evidently  been  brought 
thither  from  some  civilized  country,  there  being  no 
stones  on  the  island,  similar  to  them.*  Streets  are 
formed  in  several  places,  and  the  whole  town  appears 


*  It  has  already  been  stated,  in  this  work,  that  the  material  from 
which  former  buildings,  fortifications,  monuments,  statuary,  etc.,  had 
been  constructed  here,  and  at  Strong  and  Easter  Islands,  was  found  ii> 
quarries  in  the  interior. 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  331 

to  have  been  a  succession  of  fortified  houses.  Several 
artificial  caves  were  also  discovered  within  the  fortifi- 
cations. 

This  town  was.  doubtless,  at  one  time,  the  strong- 
hold of  pirates ;  and,  as  the  natives  can  give  no  account 
of  it,  it  seems  possible  that  it  was  built   by  Spanish 
buccaneers,  some   two  or  three   centuries   ao-o.     The 
supposition  is  confirmed  by  the  fact,  that,  about  three 
or  four  years  ago,  a  small  brass  cannon  was  found  on 
one  of  the  mountains,  and  taken  away  by  H.   M.   S. 
La7'7ie.    Several  clear  places  are  also  to  be  seen,  a  litde 
inland,  at  different  parts  of  the  island,  some  of  which 
are  many  acres  in  extent,  clear  of  timber,  and  perfecdy 
level.     Upon  one  of  these   plains,  called  K-pau,  near 
Kiti    (Roan    Kiddi)    Harbor — and   which    I    have  fre- 
quendy  visited — is  a  large  mound,  about  twent)'  feet 
wide,  eight  feet  high,  and  a  quarter  of  a  mile  in  length. 
This  must  evidendy  have  been  thrown  up  for  defense, 
or   as    a  burial    place   for  the  dead,  after  some  great 
batde.    Similar  ruins  are  to  be  found  at  Strong  Island, 
of  which  the  natives  can  give  no  account. 


STRONG    ISLAND. 


Kusaie  (Ualan)  or  Strong  Island,  at  the  eastern 
extremit}^  of  the  Carolines,  was  discovered  and. named 
by  Captain  Crozer,  an  American,  in  1804.  It  has  been 
regarded  with  some  interest,  of  late  days,  in  the  hope, 
that  the  ruins  and  monuments  found  there,  might  afford 
an  explanation  or  clue  to  the  origin  of  the  ancient 
island  races.  In  speaking  of  Pane  Bay,  the  principal 
harbor.  Captain  Hammet  describes  some  remains  of 
stone  architecture  (also  alluded  to  by  D'Urville),  which 
was  the  subject  of  much  speculation  ;    but  Dr.  Gullick 


332  THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

ascertained,  that  they  were  not  ancient,  but  were  built 
for  protection,  and  in  some  cases  as  monuments.' 

OCEAN    ISLAND. 

Located  in  28  deg.  22  min.  north  latitude,  and  178 
deg.  27  min.  west  longitude — with  its  surroundings  of 
dangerous  barrier  reefs,  and  comprised  of  barren  sand 
dunes,  is  unimportant,  except  for  the  dangers  offered 
to  the  navigator.  It  is  made  historical,  as  the  scene 
of  the  wrecks  of  th^  Gladstone,  the  American  whale 
ship  Pa7'kcr,  and  the  Saginaw,  of  the  United  States 
Navy.  Another  island,  about  one  degree  below  the 
line,  and  south  from  the  Marshall  group,  known  as 
Ocean  Island,  with  still  another  of  the  same  name  (the 
northernmost  of  the  Enderby  group),  .should  suggest 
a  change  of  the  name  of  two  of  the  islands,  with  a  like 
change  on  maps  and  charts  of  the  Pacific,  to  prevent 
confusion. 

THE  DEPTHS  OF  THE  OCEAN. 

We  dive,  says  Schleiden,  into  the  liquid  crystal  of 
the  Indian  Ocean  (a  description  serving  alike  for  the 
tropical  Atlantic  and  Pacific),  and  it  opens  to  us  the 
most  wondrous  enchantments,  reminding  us  o'f  fair}^ 
tales  in  childhood's  dreams.  The  strangely  branch- 
ing living  thickets  bear  living  flowers.  Dense  masses 
of  Meandrinas  and  Astraeas,  with  the  leafy,  cup-shaped 
expansions  of  the  Explanarias,  the  variously  ramified 
Madrepores,  which  are  now  spread  out  like  fingers, 
now  rise  in  trunk-like  branches,  and  now  display  the 
most  elegant  array  of  interlacing  branches.  The  col- 
oring surpasses  everything — vivid  green  alternates 
with  brown  or  yellow ;  rich  tints  of  purple,  from  pale 
red-brown  to  the  deepest  blue ;    brilliant  rosy,  yellow 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN-  333 

or  peach-colored  NulHpores  overgrow  the  decaying" 
masses,  and  are  diemselves  interwoven  with  the 
pearl-colored  plates  of  the  Reptipores.  resembling 
the  most  delicate  ivory  carvings.  Close  by,  wave  the 
yellow  and  lilac  fans,  perforated  like  trellis-work  of 
the  Goro-onias.  The  clear  sand  of  the  bottom  is 
covered  with  the  thousand  strange  forms  and  tints 
of  the  sea-urchins  and  star-fishes.  The  leaf-like  flus- 
tras  and  escharas  adhere  like  mosses  and  lichens  to 
the  branches  of  the  corals;  the  yellow,  green  and 
purple  striped  limpets  cling  like  monstrous  cochineal 
insects  upon  their  trunks.  Like  gigantic  cactus-blos- 
soms, sparkling  in  the  most  ardent  colors,  the  sea- 
anemones,  expand  their  crowns  of  tentacles  upon  the 
broken  rocks,  or  more  modestly  embellish  the  flat 
bottom,  looking  like  beds  of  variegated  ranunculuses. 
Around  the  blossoms  of  the  coral  shrubs  play  the 
humming-birds  of  the  ocean,  little  fishes  sparkling 
with  red  or  blue  metallic  glitter,  or  gleaming  in  golden 
green,  or  in  the  brightest  silvery  luster.  Sofdy,  like 
spirits  of  the  deep,  the  delicate  milk-white  or  bluish 
bells  of  the  jelly-fishes  float  through  this  charmed 
world.  Here,  the  gleaming  violet  and  gold-green 
Isabelle,  and  the  flaming  yellow,  black  and  vermillion 
striped  coquette  chase  their  prey;  there,  the  band- 
fish  shoots  snake-like  through  the  thicket,  like-  a  long 
silk  ribbon,  glittering  with  rosy  and  azure  hues. 
Then  comes  the  fabulous  cutUe-fish,  decked  in  all 
colors  of  the  rainbow,  but  marked  by  no  definite  out- 
line, appearing  and  disappearing,  intercrossing,  join- 
ing company  and  parting  again,  in  most  fantastic 
ways ;  and  all  this  in  the  most  rapid  change,  and  amid 
the  most  wonderful  play  of  light  and  shade,  altered 
by  every  breath  of  wind  and   every   slight   curling   of 


334  •      THE  ISLAND  WORLD 

the  surface  of  the  ocean.  When  day  declines,  and 
the  shades  of  night  lay  hold  upon  the  deep,  this 
fantastic  garden  is  lighted  up  in  new  splendor.  Mil- 
lions of  glowing  sparks,  little  microscopic  medusas 
and  crustaceons,  dance  like  glow-worms  through  the 
gloom.  The  sea-feather,  which  by  daylight  is  vermil- 
lion-colored,  waves  in  a  greenish,  phosphorescent  light. 
Every  corner  of  it  is  lustrous.  Parts  which  by  day 
Vv'ere  dull  and  brown,  and  retreated  from  sight,  amid 
the  universal  brilliancy  of  color,  are  now  radiant  in 
the  most  wonderful  play  of  green,  yellow  and  red 
light;  and,  to  complete  the  wonders  of  the  enchanted 
night,  the  silver  disc,  six  feet  across,  of  the  moon-fish, 
moves,  slightly  luminous,  among  the  cloud  of  little 
sparkling  stars. 

The  most  luxuriant  vegetation  of  a  tropical  land- 
scape cannot  unfold  as  great  wealth  of  form,  while  in 
the  variety  and  splendor  of  color  it  would  stand  far 
behind  this  garden  landscape,  which  is  strangely  com- 
posed exclusively  of  animals,  and  not  of  plants ;  for, 
characteristic  as  the  luxuriant  development  of  vegeta- 
tion of  the  temperate  zones  is  of  the  sea-bottom,  the 
fullness  and  multiplicity *of  the  marine  Fauna  is  just 
as  prominent  in  the  regions  of  the  tropics.  What- 
ever is  beautiful,  wondrous  or  uncommon  in  the  great 
classes  of  fish  and  Echinoderms,  Jelly-fishes  and  Po- 
lypes, and  the  Mollusks  of  all  kinds,  is  crowded  into 
the  warm  and  crystal  waters  of  the  tropical  ocean, 
rests  in  the  white  sands,  clothes  the  rouofh  cliffs,  clines 
where  the  room  is  already  occupied,  like  a  parasite, 
upon  the  first  comers,  or  swims  through  the  shallows 
and  depths  of  the  elements — while  the  mass  of  the 
vegetation  is  of  a  far  inferior  magnitude.  It  is  pecu- 
liar  in   relation   to  this  that  the  law  valid  on  land,  ac- 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  33s 

cording  to  which  the  animal  kingdom  being  better 
adapted  to  accommodate  itself  to  outward  circum- 
stances, has  a  greater  diffusion  than  the  vegetable 
kingdom — for  the  Polar  Seas  swarm  with  whales, 
seals,  sea-birds,  fishes  and  countless  numbers  of  the 
lower  animals,  even  where  every  trace  of  vegetation 
has  long  vanished  in  the  eternally  frozen  ice,  and 
the  cooled  sea  fosters  no  sea-weed — that  this  law,  I 
say,  holds  good  also  for  the  sea,  in  the  direction  of 
its  depth ;  for  when  we  descend,  vegetable  life  van- 
ishes much  sooner  than  the  animal,  and  even  from  the 
depths  to  which  no  ray  of  light  is  capable  of  pene- 
trating, the  sounding-lead  brings  up  news  at  least  of 
living  infusoria. 

In  concluding  with  Schleiden's  description  of  the 
shallower  depths,  it  might  be  well  to  add  something 
on  the  characteristics  of  deeper  soundings. 

According  to  thv^  records  published  of  the  voyage 
of  the  CJiallenger,  in  1872-3,  after  leaving  the  Admi- 
ralty Islands,  on  the  loth  of  March,  a  course  was 
shaped  for  Yokohama,  with  the  intention  of  reaching 
Guam,  one  of  the  Ladrone  Islands.  They  lost  the 
trades  in  latitude  1 7  deg.  north,  and  after  that,  had  a 
succession  of  easterly,  northeasterly,  and  baffling 
winds  from  every  point  of  the  compass,  except  where 
it  was  wanted  ;  thus  preventing  their  visiting  either  the 
Carolines  or  Ladrones,  which  were  passed  some  one 
hundred  miles  to  leeward.  On  the  23d  of  March,  in 
latitude  11  deg.  24  min.  north,  and  longitude  143  deg. 
16  min.  east,  bottom  was  touched  at  4,475  fathoms — 
the  deepest  successful  soundings  made  during  the 
whole  cruise.  Specimens  from  that  depth  showed  a 
dark,  volcanic  sand,  mixed  with  manganese.  In  con- 
sequence   of  the    enormous    pressure    at    that  depth 


Sj6  THE  ISLAiVD  WORLD 

(some  five  tons  on  the  square  inch),  most  of  the  ther- 
mometers were  crushed.  However,  one  stood  the 
test,  and  showed  a  temperature  of  33.9  deg.,  the  sur- 
face temperature  being  80  deg.  Three  other  attempts 
were  made  to  determine  the  temperature  of  water  at 
these  great  depths,  but  in  every  instance  the  instru- 
ments came  to  the  surface  in  a  damaged  condition.  In 
the  case  of  the  Challenger  soundings,  already  noted 
above,  the  pressure  would  be  fully  six  tons  per  square 
inch,  at  a  depth  of  4,475  fathoms,  or  nearly  five  and 
one-fifth  miles.  At  other  points  of  the  Pacific — one, 
in  particular,  350  miles  east  from  Yeddo,  Japan — a 
depth  was  obtained  of  3,950  fathoms — not  quite  four 
and  one-half  miles.  In  the  Torres  Straits  (separating 
Australia  from  New  Guinea),  2,650  fathoms  was  shown, 
beine  160  fathoms  over  three  miles.  Between  New 
Zealand,  the  Tongas  and  Fiji  Islands,  1,100  to  2,900 
fathoms  was  found,  or  from  one  and  a  quarter  to  over 
three  and  a  quarter  miles.  Still  deeper  soundings 
have  been  taken,  recently,  in  the  different  oceans,  but 
in  exceptional  cases  only.  In  the  Atlantic, ^90  miles 
north  of  the  island  of  St.  Thomas,  3,875  fathoms,  and 
another,  near  St.  Helena,  4,500  fathoms  of  line  was 
paid  out,  before  the  bottom  was  reached.  At  St. 
Thomas,  the  bulbs  of  the  thermometers,  constructed 
to  sustain  a  pressure  of  three  tons  to  the  square  inch, 
were  crushed  like  egg-shells.  The  temperature  of 
the  water,  generally,  in  deep  soundings,  is  below  the 
freezing-point,  and  life  is  found  only  in  its  primal 
lorms. 

The  immense  depths  reached  (but  a  few  of  which 
I  have  recorded),  are  the  results  of  practical  tests,  and 
are  not  theoretical.  In  all  tests  of  this  character,  it  is 
absolutely   necessary   to   bring   up   samples    from  the 


OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  337 

floor  of  the  sea;  otherwise,  stroligr  under-currents,  and 
the  pressure  of  the  water,  may  give  a  depth,  not  alto- 
srether  reliable.  Off  the  west  coast  of  South  America, 
a  very  deep  sounding,  was  obtained,  that  was  more 
amusing  than  reliable.  Such  a  length  of  cable  was  paid 
out  (about  ten  miles),  being  carried  by  the  under-cur- 
rent in  one  direction,  and  by  the  surface  tlow  in  an- 
other, that  the  force  exerted  in  hauling  in,  broke  the 
line. 

"^BOTTOM    OF    THE    SEA. 

Of  the  great  ocean's  floor — a  deep  vale,  majestic 
and  immense  in  area,  lying  miles  below  the  level  of 
our  present  shore  lines — it  might  be  said,  that,  if  the 
water  could  be  taken  away  from  the  great  basin  of  the 
Pacific,  not  many  centuries  would  elapse,  before  its 
floor  would  resemble  other  portions  of  the  land. 
Then,  if  it  were  possible  for  the  human  vision  to  en- 
compass the  scene,"  the  valleys,  plains,  deserts,  the 
mountain  chains  and  ravines,  the  hills  and  glades, 
the  stately  course  of  rivers,  or  the  meandering  of 
brooks,  would,  like  a  vast  panorama,  enchant  the 
view.  The  plumed  tufts  of  the  cocoanut  tree,  or  its 
northern  neighbor,  the  pine,  would  wave  in  the  breeze, 
or  bend  in  the  storm.  The  present  home,  of  the 
leviathan  of  the  deep,  and  the  busy  little  coral  insect, 
would  give  place  to  other  forms  of  life,  and  the  island 
world  would  fade  from  view,  like  the  slow  awakening 
from  a  summer's  dream. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 

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This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below. 


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